Multilayer capsules made of weak polyelectrolytes: a review on the preparation, functionalization and applications in drug delivery

• Varsha Sharma and
• Anandhakumar Sundaramurthy

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 508–532, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.41

Interfacial charge transfer processes in 2D and 3D semiconducting hybrid perovskites: azobenzene as photoswitchable ligand

• Nicole Fillafer,
• Tobias Seewald,
• Lukas Schmidt-Mende and
• Sebastian Polarz

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 466–479, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.38

• . Therefore, decreased radiative recombination can be observed and increased photoswitching occurs. Time-dependent fluorescence measurements reveal the distance-dependent energy transfer dynamics. We observe much shorter lifetimes for small insulating spacers (AzoC1 and AzoC2) than for longer spacers (AzoOC4

Synthesis and enhanced photocatalytic performance of 0D/2D CuO/tourmaline composite photocatalysts

• Changqiang Yu,
• Min Wen,
• Zhen Tong,
• Shuhua Li,
• Yanhong Yin,
• Xianbin Liu,
• Yesheng Li,
• Tongxiang Liang,
• Ziping Wu and
• Dionysios D. Dionysiou

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 407–416, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.31

• ) spectra. UV–visible diffuse reflectance spectra were measured using a Lambda 750S UV–vis spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer, USA) calibrated using barium sulfate. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were measured with a F-4600 fluorescence spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Japan) with an excitation wavelength of 400 nm

• Information File 1, Figure S1). Generally speaking, the higher the transient photocurrent density, the smaller the electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) [33][34]. According to the time-resolved PL spectra in Figure 5d, the average fluorescence lifetime of the CuO/tourmaline composite (2.94 ns) was shortened

• , volume = 100 mL, temperature = 25 °C. Schematic illustration of the role of tourmaline in enhancing the photocatalytic activity of CuO. BET specific surface area, total pore volume, average pore size, and average fluorescence lifetime of the samples. Supporting Information Supporting Information File 66

Brome mosaic virus-like particles as siRNA nanocarriers for biomedical purposes

• Alfredo Nuñez-Rivera,
• Pierrick G. J. Fournier,
• Danna L. Arellano,
• Ana G. Rodriguez-Hernandez,
• Rafael Vazquez-Duhalt and
• Ruben D. Cadena-Nava

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 372–382, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.28

• fluorescence of this fluorophore, the internalization into tumor cells using this labeling technique appears to be better when compared with some previous reports [31][32][33]. The NanoOrange-loaded BMV and CCMV capsids were then incubated in MCF-7 cell cultures for 4 h to evaluate their internalization into

• the breast cancer cells. Representative confocal microscopy images showed NanoOrange fluorescence inside the cells (Figure 1A). It is important to point out that the capsids are able to internalize efficiently into tumor cells without any functionalization. The cell internalization has been quantified

• possible detachment of NanoOrange from the capsids, FITC fluorophore was covalently conjugated to the capsid surface and analyzed by confocal microscopy (Figure 2 and Figure S1, Supporting Information File 1). The confocal images showed FITC fluorescence inside the cells without colocalization of the

Poly(1-vinylimidazole) polyplexes as novel therapeutic gene carriers for lung cancer therapy

• Gayathri Kandasamy,
• Elena N. Danilovtseva,
• Vadim V. Annenkov and
• Uma Maheswari Krishnan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 354–369, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.26

• systems become ineffective in delivering their cargo due to their inability to escape the endosome in cells. To investigate ability of the PVI polyplexes to escape from endosomes, their co-localization with the endosomes was investigated and the results are presented in Figure 4. The green fluorescence of

• the endosomes and the red fluorescence of the fluorophore-tagged siRNA are perfectly merged indicating that the free siRNA is unable to escape from the endosome. This is expected as it has been established earlier that double-stranded oligonucleotides tend to accumulate in the endosomal compartment

• and very few manage to reach the cytosol [25]. The polyplex-treated cells reveal several zones of red fluorescence localized at regions distinct from the green fluorescence. This suggests that a fraction of the polyplex has escaped from the endosomal compartment, which is advantageous for gene

Using gold nanoparticles to detect single-nucleotide polymorphisms: toward liquid biopsy

• María Sanromán Iglesias and
• Marek Grzelczak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 263–284, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.20

• -art of advanced techniques in the field of genomics such as digital PCR, next generation sequencing (NGS), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and BEAMing. These facilitate the fast design of mutational profiles of tumor DNA, helping the prioritization of anti-cancer therapy. Although these

• solution containing plasmonic nanoparticles (from red to blue) in the presence of molecules offers an excellent tool for colorimetric sensing without the need of using advanced techniques. Similarly, selective fluorescence quenching of organic dyes or semiconducting nanoparticles by plasmonic nanoparticles

• capable of quenching fluorescence through Förster resonance energy transfer. By involving an isothermal circular amplification reaction of polymerase and NEase, the group of Chen [121] used gold nanoparticles to either quench or enhance the electrochemiluminescence of CdS films through the modulation of

Phase inversion-based nanoemulsions of medium chain triglyceride as potential drug delivery system for parenteral applications

• Eike Folker Busmann,
• Dailén García Martínez,
• Henrike Lucas and
• Karsten Mäder

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 213–224, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.16

• differently diluted nanoemulsions, the cells were incubated for 4 or 24 h. The cell viability was determined by a resazurin reduction assay. Therefore, 30 µL of a 0.15 mg/mL resazurin solution was added and the mixture was incubated for 2 h. Then, the fluorescence intensity was determines with the CytationTM

Rational design of block copolymer self-assemblies in photodynamic therapy

• Maxime Demazeau,
• Laure Gibot,
• Anne-Françoise Mingotaud,
• Patricia Vicendo,
• Clément Roux and
• Barbara Lonetti

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 180–212, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.15

• nanoparticles through disulfide bonds and conferred a sensitiveness to GSH at intracellular level. The authors showed that the intact micelles generated heat upon irradiation, thus allowing PTT, while fluorescence and ROS generation were the main deactivation processes in the case of disassembled micelles. This

• is an example of “all in one“ nanomedicine used for chemotherapy combining loading with doxorubicin, PDT and PTT. This is possible thanks to the activation of the photosensitizer and multimodal imaging using the fluorescence of the photosensitizer (near-infrared fluorescence imaging, NIRFI) and the

• released [91]. The photoactivity of the photosensitizer can also be modulated by conjugation with a quencher molecule different from the photosensitizer itself. IR780 could be used as a quencher of chlorin-e6 fluorescence in albumin-based nanosystems [107]. Upon NIR excitation and IR780 degradation chlorin

Molecular architectonics of DNA for functional nanoarchitectures

• Debasis Ghosh,
• Lakshmi P. Datta and
• Thimmaiah Govindaraju

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 124–140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.11

• tiles were separated by a helical turn, which triggered the switchable motion of the device through B-to-Z-form transition, and the relative changes in position and transformation were monitored by the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) technique. Zhao and co-workers reported the design and

• xenograft tumor-bearing mice. The siRNA-conjugated DNA tetrahedron nanoarchitecture system was administered to mice by tail vein injection, and the quantitative accumulation was monitored by fluorescence molecular tomography imaging, combined with computed tomography. The imaging data showed accumulation of

The different ways to chitosan/hyaluronic acid nanoparticles: templated vs direct complexation. Influence of particle preparation on morphology, cell uptake and silencing efficiency

• Arianna Gennari,
• Julio M. Rios de la Rosa,
• Erwin Hohn,
• Maria Pelliccia,
• Enrique Lallana,
• Roberto Donno,
• Annalisa Tirella and
• Nicola Tirelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2594–2608, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.250

• specified incubation times, i.e., 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 24 h. Afterwards, cells were washed three times with pre-warmed PBS and lysed in 100 µL RIPA Buffer. The total uptake (combined membrane-bound and internalized materials) was calculated from fluorescence measurements of the cell lysates using a

• -based cationic nanocarriers [40][41]. Next, we analysed the nanoparticle uptake in the two cell lines for up to 24 h; we tracked the fluorescence associated to nanoparticles in cell lysates, which accounts for both membrane-bound and internalized materials [10]. We used fluorescently labelled chitosan

• and HA, producing nanoparticles selectively containing one labelled polymer. Following either chitosan- or HA-associated fluorescence (respectively black and red symbols in Figure 5), we observed qualitatively similar uptake kinetics, which is a sign that the two components are mostly internalized

Fully amino acid-based hydrogel as potential scaffold for cell culturing and drug delivery

• Dávid Juriga,
• Evelin Sipos,
• Orsolya Hegedűs,
• Gábor Varga,
• Miklós Zrínyi,
• Krisztina S. Nagy and
• Angéla Jedlovszky-Hajdú

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2579–2593, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.249

• concentration around 1.5 wt %) which correlates with the findings of Datta et al., who found that the addition of 1.5 wt % of LYS significantly increases the cell viability [30]. The two-photon microscopic images (Figure 6b) confirm the results of our viability assays. Since the cells show a red fluorescence

Long-term stability and scale-up of noncovalently bound gold nanoparticle-siRNA suspensions

• Anna V. Epanchintseva,
• Julia E. Poletaeva,
• Dmitrii V. Pyshnyi,
• Elena I. Ryabchikova and
• Inna A. Pyshnaya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2568–2578, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.248

• and measured the fluorescence intensity of the labeled sense siRNA strand. The study demonstrated the long-term storage capability of the noncovalent AuNP-siRNA nanoconstruction without loss of their physicochemical properties and the siRNA duplex integrity over the period of 7 months. Results and

• reducing the toxic effect of siRNA [24]. In this work, we prepared AuNP-siRNA according to previously established regulations, and noncovalent sorption of the siRNA molecules on AuNPs was shown to be reversible [16][25]. The surface density of siRNA was calculated from the measurements of the fluorescence

• buffer at 5 V/cm. The products on the gel were visualized by StainsAll. Surface density of siRNA The surface density of siRNA in the AuNP-siRNA nanoconstructions was evaluated by the measurement of fluorescence of the labeled RNA strand on a Clariostar plate fluorimeter (BMG, Labtech) at λex = 640 nm and

Bombesin receptor-targeted liposomes for enhanced delivery to lung cancer cells

• Mohammad J. Akbar,
• Pâmela C. Lukasewicz Ferreira,
• Melania Giorgetti,
• Leanne Stokes and
• Christopher J. Morris

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2553–2562, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.246

• relative cellular accumulation (data not shown). To overcome this, the density of targeting lipid was increased to 3 mol %. To examine for active internalisation and intracellular accumulation of liposomes at the endocytosis permissive temperature of 37 °C, we subtracted the median fluorescence intensity

• (MFI) attributable to cell-surface adsorption of liposomes at 4 °C, to yield a “normalised cell MFI” at each time point and for each formulation. For non-targeted FL-Control-lipo, there was a modest increase in normalised fluorescence over time (blue bars, Figure 4a). In contrast, the fluorescence of

• FL-Target-lipo increased over time (red bars, Figure 4a). Drawing comparison between the control and targeted liposome groups, it was clear to see that at 15 min, fluorescence was no greater in cells treated with FL-Target-lipo compared to FL-Control-lipo. However, at 60 min and beyond cell

Evaluation of click chemistry microarrays for immunosensing of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)

• Seyed Mohammad Mahdi Dadfar,
• Sylwia Sekula-Neuner,
• Vanessa Trouillet,
• Hui-Yu Liu,
• Ravi Kumar,
• Annie K. Powell and
• Michael Hirtz

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2505–2515, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.241

• was spotted onto them via microchannel cantilever spotting (µCS). Based on the fluorescence measurements, the optimal microarray design was found and its sensitivity was determined. Keywords: alpha-fetoprotein (AFP); cancer biomarker; click chemistry; fluorescent immunosensor; hepatocellular

• spotted onto the surfaces via µCS. The microarrays were incubated for performing antigen–antibody interaction for different times (10 to 60 min) and at different temperatures (room temperature of 25 °C and elevated physiological temperature of 37 °C). Then, the samples were washed and the fluorescence

• signal of the spot array was quantified (Figure 4). As a general trend, higher fluorescence intensities are observed at an elevated temperature of 37 °C for all microarrays at the same incubation time. For room temperature incubation, the observed fluorescence intensity increases with incubation time for

Formation of metal/semiconductor Cu–Si composite nanostructures

• Natalya V. Yumozhapova,
• Andrey V. Nomoev,
• Vyacheslav V. Syzrantsev and
• Erzhena C. Khartaeva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2497–2504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.240

• silicon are concentrated in the core and on the surface of the particle, respectively. The X-ray fluorescence analysis (EDX) of Cu–SiOx nanoparticles, taken on a section of size 500 × 500 nm (Figure 7c), confirms that the particles consist of copper, silicon, and oxygen. The nanoparticles are stable

Small protein sequences can induce cellular uptake of complex nanohybrids

• Jan-Philip Merkl,
• Malak Safi,
• Christian Schmidtke,
• Fadi Aldeek,
• Johannes Ostermann,
• Tatiana Domitrovic,
• Sebastian Gärtner,
• John E. Johnson,
• Horst Weller and
• Hedi Mattoussi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2477–2482, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.238

• ]. We found that once uploaded onto an amylose-filled column, the nanohybrid stayed tightly bound to the column even after several washes with buffer. The bimodal character of the hybrid is reflected in the pinkish colour of the AuNPs and the fluorescence of the QDs of the immobilized band in the

• consisting of 100 nM QD solution, 2 equivalents of LA-ZW-AuNP per QD and 14 equivalents His6-MBP-γ per AuNPs, were incubated with the cell culture for 1 h. Following rinsing the culture was imaged using epifluorescence and confocal fluorescence microscopy. A pronounced intracellular uptake of the hybrids was

• observed, as indicated by the significant fluorescence staining of the cells (see Figure 1D). Additional confocal images collected from two sets of cultures, one incubated with nanohybrids prepared with His6-MBP-γ and the other with His6-MBP (gamma-free MBP), and serving as control. Only the culture

Self-assembly of a terbium(III) 1D coordination polymer on mica

• Quentin Evrard,
• Giuseppe Cucinotta,
• Felix Houard,
• Guillaume Calvez,
• Yan Suffren,
• Carole Daiguebonne,
• Olivier Guillou,
• Andrea Caneschi,
• Matteo Mannini and
• Kevin Bernot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2440–2448, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.234

• . Luminescence measurements. Luminescence emission spectra were measured with a Horiba Jobin-Yvon Fluorolog-III fluorescence spectrometer equipped with a 450 W Xe lamp. The emission signal was collected in the 190–860 nm range via a Hamamatsu R928 UV–vis photomultiplier. The sample emission was measured directly

pH-Controlled fluorescence switching in water-dispersed polymer brushes grafted to modified boron nitride nanotubes for cellular imaging

• Saban Kalay,
• Yurij Stetsyshyn,
• Volodymyr Donchak,
• Khrystyna Harhay,
• Ostap Lishchynskyi,
• Halyna Ohar,
• Yuriy Panchenko,
• Stanislav Voronov and
• Mustafa Çulha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2428–2439, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.233

• functionalization of BNNTs was confirmed by spectroscopic, gravimetric and imaging techniques. In contrast to “pure” BNNTs, P(AA-co-FA)-functionalized BNNTs demonstrate intense green fluorescence emission at 520 nm. Under neutral or alkaline pH values, P(AA-co-FA)-functionalized BNNTs are highly emissive in

• (DU145) and are suitable for further evaluation in cellular imaging applications. Keywords: boron nitride nanotubes; cellular imaging; fluorescence; pH switching; polymer brushes; surface modification; Introduction In recent years, considerable effort has been devoted to the development of hybrid

• commonly used labels is fluorescein [37][38][39][40][41][42]. In biomedical applications, fluorescein has several advantages over other dyes such as nontoxicity, high water solubility, and pH responsivity. Fluorescein demonstrates a high fluorescence efficiency at basic pH values but becomes nonfluorescent

Coating of upconversion nanoparticles with silica nanoshells of 5–250 nm thickness

• Cynthia Kembuan,
• Maysoon Saleh,
• Bastian Rühle,
• Ute Resch-Genger and
• Christina Graf

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2410–2421, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.231

• narrow emission bands in the ultraviolet/visible/NIR upon excitation in the NIR range where light absorption and scattering from biological tissues is minimal as well as long fluorescence lifetimes in the microsecond range that are insensitive to oxygen, a high chemical stability and a low cytotoxicity

• excitation power density, this can influence both the UCL intensity and the UCL spectral distribution. In general, the coating with a thick silica shell is not expected to strongly affect the brightness of the UCNPs as long as the two properties absorption cross section and fluorescence quantum yield, which

• such as peptides, antibodies or nucleic acids for bioimaging applications or fluorescence assays. The growth of a mesoporous silica shell on a microporous silica shell can also be applied for the subsequent use of these nanomaterials for drug loading and delivery [69]. Experimental All syntheses were

Deterministic placement of ultra-bright near-infrared color centers in arrays of silicon carbide micropillars

• Stefania Castelletto,
• Abdul Salam Al Atem,
• Faraz Ahmed Inam,
• Hans Jürgen von Bardeleben,
• Sophie Hameau,
• Ahmed Fahad Almutairi,
• Gérard Guillot,
• Shin-ichiro Sato,
• Alberto Boretti and
• Jean Marie Bluet

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2383–2395, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.229

• implanted with H+ ions to produce an ensemble of color centers at a depth of approximately 2 μm. The samples were in part annealed at different temperatures (750 and 900 °C) to selectively produce distinct color centers. For all these color centers we saw an enhancement of the photostable fluorescence

• the near-infrared, there is a need to improve the spontaneous emission rate for room-temperature applications such as magnetic sensing and SPSs. For all the above applications, the fluorescence emission enhancement of the color centers is a crucial issue for room-temperature applications, specifically

• the VSiVC and NCVSi. A detailed confocal microscopy study of NCVSi in the pillars is given in the next section. A summary of the PL-measured color centers in each sample is reported in Table 1. Confocal microscopy Confocal fluorescence scanning microscopy was performed using two custom-built systems

Polyvinylpyrrolidone as additive for perovskite solar cells with water and isopropanol as solvents

• Chen Du,
• Shuo Wang,
• Xu Miao,
• Wenhai Sun,
• Yu Zhu,
• Chengyan Wang and
• Ruixin Ma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2374–2382, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.228

• monochromator. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy was performed using a Fourier transform IR spectrometer (VERTEX80v, Bruker). Photoluminescence (PL) spectra and the fluorescence decay curves were recorded with a computer controlled, modular spectro- fluorimeter (FLS980, Edinburgh). The active area of the cell was 0.1

Atomic force acoustic microscopy reveals the influence of substrate stiffness and topography on cell behavior

• Yan Liu,
• Li Li,
• Xing Chen,
• Ying Wang,
• Meng-Nan Liu,
• Jin Yan,
• Liang Cao,
• Lu Wang and
• Zuo-Bin Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2329–2337, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.223

• distribution of molecules. However, many native tissues are not homogeneously stiff and it is not clear whether the controlled presentation of rigid and flexible material axes on the substrate governs the cytoskeletal and nuclear morphology [14]. Several techniques such as fluorescence microscopy [14][15

• ], confocal microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [12] and atomic force microscopy (AFM) [16][17] have been employed to investigate cell–substrate interactions. Fluorescence and confocal microscopy are traditional techniques to investigate the intra- and intercellular processes in biological studies

• topography is determined by both the exposure dose and the development of the SU-8 films. We cultured L929 cells on undeveloped and developed SU-8 surfaces as well as on a reference glass substrate. The structural responses of the L929 cells on the substrate topography were probed using AFAM. A fluorescence

Design of a nanostructured mucoadhesive system containing curcumin for buccal application: from physicochemical to biological aspects

• Sabrina Barbosa de Souza Ferreira,
• Gustavo Braga,
• Évelin Lemos Oliveira,
• Jéssica Bassi da Silva,
• Hélen Cássia Rosseto,
• Lidiane Vizioli de Castro Hoshino,
• Mauro Luciano Baesso,
• Wilker Caetano,
• Craig Murdoch,
• Helen Elizabeth Colley and
• Marcos Luciano Bruschi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2304–2328, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.222

• in comparison to pH 7 at 37 °C. These results could be explained by new chemical species from pKa that do not appear in the emission spectra due to the excitation wavelength of 422 nm (CUR maximum absorption). Anisotropy of fluorescence (r) was also investigated for the samples with maximum peak

• spectral emission (Table 1). Anisotropy is considered a powerful technique to investigate the molecular dynamics of fluorescent solutes, such as CUR. During the fluorescence analysis, the molecules are excited by linearly polarized light, and they absorb and emit the fluorescence in a polarized way. If the

• ]. Furthermore, the temperature changes were more remarkable than the variation in pH, with the systems investigated at 45 °C displaying higher anisotropy values in comparison to those evaluated at 37 °C. Incorporation kinetics Incorporation kinetics were evaluated by observing the fluorescence emission

Microfluidics as tool to prepare size-tunable PLGA nanoparticles with high curcumin encapsulation for efficient mucus penetration

• Nashrawan Lababidi,
• Valentin Sigal,
• Aljoscha Koenneke,
• Konrad Schwarzkopf,
• Andreas Manz and
• Marc Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2280–2293, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.220

• were of HPLC grade. Fluorescence labelling of PLGA In a first step 1.1 equiv of rhodamine B was dissolved in dried dichloromethane (DCM) and activated with 1.5 equiv of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC, Scheme 1). This solution was stirred at room temperature. Subsequently, a solution with 1 equiv of PLGA

• within the mucus sample were obtained at constant distance from the bottom of the slide. The permeability of PLGA NPs through mucus was tracked by the change in the fluorescence signal. This approach allowed us to study the size-dependent permeation of PLGA NP through pulmonary human mucus. One day

• nanoparticles stabilized with different types of Pluronic before and after their distribution and interaction with mucin. xz-micrographs taken in confocal laser scanning microscopy study of the penetration of differently sized F68-stabilized PLGA NPs. Fluorescently labelled (red fluorescence) 60, 120 and 400 nm

Use of data processing for rapid detection of the prostate-specific antigen biomarker using immunomagnetic sandwich-type sensors

• Camila A. Proença,
• Tayane A. Freitas,
• Thaísa A. Baldo,
• Elsa M. Materón,
• Flávio M. Shimizu,
• Gabriella R. Ferreira,
• Frederico L. F. Soares,
• Ronaldo C. Faria and
• Osvaldo N. Oliveira Jr.

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2019, 10, 2171–2181, doi:10.3762/bjnano.10.210

• diseases [1]. Protein biomarkers are commonly measured using conventional immunoassays such as enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) [1], radioimmunoassay (RIA) [2], fluorescence methods [3], and chemiluminescence [4]. Unfortunately, these standard methodologies have high cost, long analysis times