Synthesis of heterocycles based on azomethine ylides from α-amino acids (or amines) and carbonyl compounds

• Ekaterina V. Berezhnaya,
• Alexander I. Ponyaev,
• Vitali M. Boitsov and
• Alexander V. Stepakov

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2026, 22, 705–741, doi:10.3762/bjoc.22.55

• adduct in good yield (47–96%) and high enantioselectivity, regardless of the electronic nature and position of the substituents (82–98% ee). The authors suggest that bidentate coordination of the chiral copper complex with silylimine 77 is crucial for substrate activation, which is presumably accompanied

Recent advances in controllable/divergent synthesis

• Jilei Cao,
• Leiyang Bai and
• Xuefeng Jiang

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2025, 21, 890–914, doi:10.3762/bjoc.21.73

• reaction pathways, selectivity, and catalytic efficiency. By exploiting dynamic acid–base equilibria or stimuli-responsive systems, chemists can manipulate substrate activation, stabilize reactive intermediates, and orchestrate complex multistep transformations under mild conditions [47]. In 2016, Lu's

Photomechanochemistry: harnessing mechanical forces to enhance photochemical reactions

• Francesco Mele,
• Ana M. Constantin,
• Andrea Porcheddu,
• Raimondo Maggi,
• Giovanni Maestri,
• Nicola Della Ca’ and
• Luca Capaldo

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2025, 21, 458–472, doi:10.3762/bjoc.21.33

• mechanochemistry holds potential for unique opportunities for substrate activation while adopting an environmentally benign emerging technology (Figure 2, top). For example, it is well known that molecules in the solid state (or in very high concentration) often exhibit photophysical behaviors distinct from those

Recent advances in electrochemical copper catalysis for modern organic synthesis

• Yemin Kim and
• Won Jun Jang

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2025, 21, 155–178, doi:10.3762/bjoc.21.9

• achieved by precisely controlling the potential. Additionally, the merging of electrochemistry and transition-metal catalysis offers advantages in controlling substrate activation, intermediate reactivity, and bond formation, as well as facilitating asymmetric transformations. As a result, electrochemical

Stereoselective mechanochemical synthesis of thiomalonate Michael adducts via iminium catalysis by chiral primary amines

• Michał Błauciak,
• Dominika Andrzejczyk,
• Błażej Dziuk and
• Rafał Kowalczyk

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2024, 20, 2313–2322, doi:10.3762/bjoc.20.198

• products with enantiomeric excesses above 95% ee [46], changing the catalytic system and activation method from non-covalent to covalent substrate activation, allowed for the synthesis of products with moderate to good yields (46–72%). However, it was not possible to determine the enantiomeric excesses for

Mechanisms for radical reactions initiating from N-hydroxyphthalimide esters

• Carlos R. Azpilcueta-Nicolas and
• Jean-Philip Lumb

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2024, 20, 346–378, doi:10.3762/bjoc.20.35

• oxidative quenching photocatalytic cycle employing Ir-based photoreductants and a Brønsted acid additive. While the interaction between the RAE 32 and diphenyl phosphoric acid involves hydrogen bonding, in analogy to the Glorius proposal, it is thought that the substrate activation occurs through proton

• (E1/2red[IrIV/*IrIII] = −0.96 V vs SCE) would not promote the reduction of 44 (−1.25 V vs SCE) [56] (Scheme 10). Interestingly, the role of H-bonding in substrate activation was not considered. To explain the observed transformation, it was suggested that the IrIII-photocatalyst acted as a

Photoredox catalysis harvesting multiple photon or electrochemical energies

• Mattia Lepori,
• Simon Schmid and
• Joshua P. Barham

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2023, 19, 1055–1145, doi:10.3762/bjoc.19.81

• photoredox catalysts and ii) energy that parallels the energy of UV-driven transformations, but under cheaper, safer conditions and in a more selective manner by indirect substrate activation via a catalyst. These are: a) multi-photon processes that accumulate visible light photon energies for electron

A resorcin[4]arene hexameric capsule as a supramolecular catalyst in elimination and isomerization reactions

• Tommaso Lorenzetto,
• Fabrizio Fabris and
• Alessandro Scarso

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2022, 18, 337–349, doi:10.3762/bjoc.18.38

• the active site of the enzyme. Once bound, substrate activation is carried out by specific amino acid side chains that adorn the inner surface of the cavity by means of a combination of covalent and/or weak intermolecular interactions leading to the stabilization of intermediate species and transition

Bacterial terpene biosynthesis: challenges and opportunities for pathway engineering

• Eric J. N. Helfrich,
• Geng-Min Lin,
• Christopher A. Voigt and
• Jon Clardy

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 2889–2906, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.283

• cyclization reactions. Textbook TCs are categorized into two classes and differ in their mechanisms of substrate activation as well as their protein folds [37][50][51][52]. Type I TCs trigger the formation of highly reactive allylic cations by heterolytic cleavage of the terminal pyrophosphate of farnesyl

Current understanding and biotechnological application of the bacterial diterpene synthase CotB2

• Ronja Driller,
• Daniel Garbe,
• Norbert Mehlmer,
• Monika Fuchs,
• Keren Raz,
• Dan Thomas Major,
• Thomas Brück and
• Bernhard Loll

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 2355–2368, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.228

• carbocation (3) and finally the quenching of the carbocation by a base or water [16][17]. TPSs can be divided into two distinct classes, which are distinguished by their substrate activation mechanism. Whereas ionization of an isoprenoid diphosphate is caused by hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate by a trinuclear

Enantioselective Diels–Alder reaction of anthracene by chiral tritylium catalysis

• Qichao Zhang,
• Jian Lv and
• Sanzhong Luo

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 1304–1312, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.129

• the carbocation precursor [20][21]. In this latent strategy, the carbocation precursor can undergo facile ionic dissociation upon mild external stimulation such as polar substrates (such as α-ketoesters) to form a catalytically active chiral ion pair for substrate activation and chiral induction

Computational characterization of enzyme-bound thiamin diphosphate reveals a surprisingly stable tricyclic state: implications for catalysis

• Ferran Planas,
• Michael J. McLeish and
• Fahmi Himo

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2019, 15, 145–159, doi:10.3762/bjoc.15.15

• . This observation is more difficult to demonstrate experimentally. While H/D exchange experiments have been used as a measure of the rate of ylide formation, substrate activation has only been observed with allosteric enzymes such as yeast PDC [8]. Further, even though there is a CD signature for the IP

Opportunities and challenges for the sustainable production of structurally complex diterpenoids in recombinant microbial systems

• Katarina Kemper,
• Max Hirte,
• Markus Reinbold,
• Monika Fuchs and
• Thomas Brück

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2017, 13, 845–854, doi:10.3762/bjoc.13.85

• the cyclization is generally initiated by protonation of the terminal carbon double bond of the substrate [53]. Since the diphosphate group is preserved during substrate activation by this type of synthases, products from Class II TPS can serve as substrates for Class I TPS which has been reported for

New approaches to organocatalysis based on C–H and C–X bonding for electrophilic substrate activation

• Pavel Nagorny and
• Zhankui Sun

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2016, 12, 2834–2848, doi:10.3762/bjoc.12.283

• mimic enzymatic reactions through the electrostatic substrate activation or stabilization of charged transition states or reaction intermediates. At the same time, recent studies highlight the importance of other types of non-covalent interactions such as the activation through the formation of C–H···A

• activation allows expanding the repertoire of existing organic catalysts beyond what is found in biological systems. This mini review highlights recent progress on organocatalysis that is based on C–H···A or halogen (C–X···X or C–X···A) bonds for substrate activation. C–H hydrogen bonds It is well

• ][76][77][78][79]. Interestingly, such reaction mechanisms are not well understood, and the formation of trace quantities of hydroiodic acid rather than the direct substrate activation by molecular iodine has been frequently invoked to rationalize the outcome of these studies. Recently, Breugst and co

Enzymatic synthesis and phosphorolysis of 4(2)-thioxo- and 6(5)-azapyrimidine nucleosides by E. coli nucleoside phosphorylases

• Vladimir A. Stepchenko,
• Anatoly I. Miroshnikov,
• Frank Seela and
• Igor A. Mikhailopulo

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2016, 12, 2588–2601, doi:10.3762/bjoc.12.254

• correct positioning of uracil and its closely related analogues, e.g., 5-fluorouracil, thymine and its 5-trifluoro analogue etc, within the catalytic site of E. coli UP, which is accompanied by the substrate activation ensuring the subsequent attack of the N-1 nitrogen atom on the electrophilic C-1 atom

Triazole–Au(I) complex as chemoselective catalyst in promoting propargyl ester rearrangements

• Dawei Wang,
• Yanwei Zhang,
• Rong Cai and
• Xiaodong Shi

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1014–1020, doi:10.3762/bjoc.7.115

• structures revealed nearly identical Au–P bond length for both the anionic and neutral triazole coordinated Au(I) complexes. The longer Au–N bond in TA–Au-2 implies that the neutral triazole dissociates more easily to release the coordination site for substrate activation. This new class of compounds offers

The role of silver additives in gold-mediated C–H functionalisation

• Scott R. Patrick,
• Ine I. F. Boogaerts,
• Sylvain Gaillard,
• Alexandra M. Z. Slawin and
• Steven P. Nolan

Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 892–896, doi:10.3762/bjoc.7.102

• functionalisation of aromatic C–H bonds. Doubt is cast on the commonly cited route of halide abstraction from gold and evidence of substrate activation is given. Keywords: C–H functionalisation; gold catalyst; halide abstraction; N-heterocyclic carbene; silver salt; substrate activation; Introduction The use of