Micro- and nanoscale effects in biological and bioinspired materials and surfaces

• Thies H. Büscher,
• Rhainer Guillermo Ferreira,
• Manuela Rebora and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 214–217, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.14

• composition of the secreting cells and its cement product, providing a strong basis for further research on the assembly of biological and bioinspired adhesives. Sawant et al. [15] focused on the cement of a barnacle and experimentally investigated a specific key cement protein and its self-assembly under

Safe and sustainable by design with ML/AI: A transformative approach to advancing nanotechnology

• Georgia Melagraki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 176–185, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.11

• and risks associated with specific ENMs [56]. One illustrative application involves modelling nanoparticle–protein interactions, a critical factor in drug delivery systems, where digital twins can accurately predict protein adsorption patterns on nanoparticle surfaces through read-across and

• interpolation from limited experimental datasets [57]. Given that protein corona formation [58] can drastically alter the biodistribution and immunological profile of a nanoparticle, digital twins help pinpoint safer design parameters – such as surface coatings or particle size modifications – which improve

• synthesis routes, and minimized toxicity. Moreover, digital twins contribute a real-time, iterative layer of validation and optimization, enabling researchers to virtually explore a variety of scenarios – from nanoparticle–protein interactions to environmental dispersion without ever having to synthesize

From shield to spear: Charge-reversible nanocarriers in overcoming cancer therapy barriers

• Madhuri Yeduvaka,
• Pooja Mittal,
• Ameer Boyalakuntla,
• Usman Bee Shaik,
• Himanshu Sharma,
• Thakur Gurjeet Singh,
• Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula and
• Lakshmi Vineela Nalla

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 159–175, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.10

• also induce cytotoxicity and rapid clearance by the mononuclear phagocyte system [18]. Moreover, surface charge influences aggregation behaviour, colloidal stability, and protein corona formation, directly impacting the therapeutic efficacy of nanocarriers. Optimising surface charge is essential for

• groups for protonation-driven charge inversion, ensuring precise intracellular payload unloading [22]. Furthermore, the neutral charge state during systemic circulation helps to reduce cytotoxicity by minimising nonspecific protein adsorption and immune system activation. A study by Yuan et al. showed

• that zwitterionic and neutral nanoparticles possess highly hydrated, charge-balanced surfaces that minimize serum protein adsorption, complement activation, and cytokine release (IL-6, TNF-α). In murine models, these particles exhibited reduced systemic inflammation and enhanced circulation stability

Influence of surface characteristics on the in vitro stability and cell uptake of nanoliposomes for brain delivery

• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Andreas Zimmer,
• Otmar Geiss,
• Sabrina Gioria,
• Diletta Scaccabarozzi and
• Marija Glavas Dodov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 139–158, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.9

• NLs interact with biomolecules, thus forming a protein corona (PC), altering functional proteins, and engaging in redox reactions with reactive species [6]. These interactions can affect the functionality, biodistribution, targeting, and cell internalization of NLs. Serum components can disrupt the

• lipid structure of NLs, leading to AC leakage, while plasma protein adsorption may cause particle aggregation [7]. In this sense, the presence of proteins in the tissue environment can alter cellular uptake of both cationic and anionic carriers [8]. In short, our understanding of how nanodelivery

• nanoliposomal surface Protein electrophoresis was performed by a 2100 Bioanalyzer using High Sensitivity Protein 250 kit assays in reducing condition according to the instruction from the manufacturer. Briefly, samples were prepared as for the AF4 analysis. At the end of the incubation time, samples were

Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• lipophilic substances. Furthermore, liposomes can also act as a protein delivery system, reducing enzymatic degradation of proteins and enhancing their stability and their permeability through cell membranes [7]. Immunoliposomes provide many advantages by surface functionalization with targeting biomolecules

• for more effective, safer, and personalized theranostic treatment of colorectal cancer [11]. R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) is a phycobiliprotein isolated from red algae Solieria filiformis, which is cultivated on the Brazilian coast [12]. Several pre-clinical studies have shown that this protein has

• high level of protein encapsulation. These values are significantly higher than those reported in the literature, where the EE% for the β-subunit of R-PE typically remains around 50% [32]. The high EE% observed in this study may be attributed to the presence of carbohydrates, which are known to reduce

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

Chiral plasmonic nanostructures fabricated with circularly polarized light

• Tian Qiao and
• Ming Lee Tang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2245–2264, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.154

• generating detailed information on biomolecules, such as the hierarchy of protein structures [146][147][148]. The superchiral field of cPNSs has also been utilized to selectively modulate the excitation and spontaneous emission rate of valley excitons in transition metal dichalcogenide (TMDC) monolayers [156

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

• (e.g., metformin) and bile acid sequestrants (e.g., cholestyramine), and patients with inherited disorders such as deficiency of the non-glycosylated protein of transcobalamin II (TC-II) [2][10][45][46][47][48]. Pathways of vitamin B12 absorption and metabolism Two principal mechanisms exist for the

• forms (AdoCbl and MeCbl), via a complicated intracellular process involving various chaperone proteins and transporters, regardless of its form when ingested [34][47][50][55]. Acting as the main chaperone, the methylmalonic aciduria and homocystinuria type-C protein (MMACHC) captures VB12 exiting the

• lysosomes in a distinct base-off conformation. In this process, the protein replaces the 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole ligand of VB12 with one of its histidine residues. Furthermore, MMACHC plays a pivotal role in converting all variants of VB12 into the cob(II)alamin intermediate. This crucial step includes

Ultrathin water layers on mannosylated gold nanoparticles

• Maiara A. Iriarte Alonso,
• Jorge H. Melillo,
• Silvina Cerveny,
• Yujin Tong and
• Alexander M. Bittner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2183–2198, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.151

• glycosylated AuNP can provide a simplified model of a viral spike, whenever the virus is very densely coated, for example, influenza by hemagglutinin [18][19]. Hence, our idea is not to emulate complete virions; rather, one NP is emulating one single spike protein. Although the density of the NPs is not very

Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: the need for standardisation

• Michał Bartkowski,
• Francesco Calzaferri and
• Silvia Giordani

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2092–2104, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.144

• tend to evade renal filtration due to the formation of a protein corona that effectively increases their hydrodynamic size [38]. Beyond renal clearance, particle size also critically influences toxicity, metabolic fate, tumour targeting, protein interactions, and hepatic processing. Additional

The cement of the tube-dwelling polychaete Sabellaria alveolata: a complex composite adhesive material

• Emilie Duthoo,
• Aurélie Lambert,
• Pierre Becker,
• Carla Pugliese,
• Jean-Marc Baele,
• Arnaud Delfairière,
• Matthew J. Harrington and
• Patrick Flammang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1998–2014, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.138

• and that of the cement suggests that the inclusions of the heterogeneous granules would inflate through a still unexplained process to form hollow spheroids dispersed in the cement matrix, leading to the formation of a complex composite material. Keywords: adhesive protein; Annelida; biological

• material; Polychaeta; protein phosphorylation; Introduction Many invertebrate marine organisms have adhesive mechanisms that allow them to firmly attach to various substrates in a wet and salty environment [1][2]. This remarkable ability has raised the interest of scientists in developing bio-inspired

• undergoing post-translational phosphorylation [15]. As a result, Pc-3 is an unusually acidic protein. Pc-4 and Pc-5 are histidine-rich basic proteins. In the adhesive secretion of S. alveolata, only three adhesive proteins have been identified [17], although a differential transcriptomic study suggested the

PEGylated lipids in lipid nanoparticle delivery dynamics and therapeutic innovation

• Peiyang Gao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1914–1930, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.133

• chains arrange on the nanoparticle surface and the potential impacts on LNPs’ physicochemical properties by varying surface PEG density or PEG chemistry. Subsequently, PEG conformations are discussed in terms of their modulation of protein corona formation, cellular uptake, and immunogenic responses

• LNPs, PEG lipids are widely used to provide the nanoparticles with a unique outer layer. The “stealth” properties of PEG chains can prevent nanoparticle aggregation, reduce nonspecific protein adsorption, and delay immune recognition, thereby extending LNP circulation half-life in the bloodstream [2][4

• properties of LNPs including particle size, surface charge, and encapsulation efficiency. Subsequent sections explore the roles of PEG lipids in modulating protein corona formation and cellular uptake. The latter parts highlight the potential of functionalized PEG lipids for targeted delivery and the

Self-assembly and adhesive properties of Pollicipes pollicipes barnacle cement protein cp19k: influence of pH and ionic strength

• Shrutika Sawant,
• Anne Marie Power and
• J. Gerard Wall

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1863–1872, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.129

• study, we investigated the influence of environmental parameters on the self-assembly of recombinant cp19k, a key adhesive protein in Pollicipes pollicipes. Using TEM imaging, a low pH (4.0) and high salt concentration (600 mM NaCl) environment, mimicking P. pollicipes gland conditions, was identified

• to promote the formation of extended, needle-like fibrils by the cp19k protein. The β-amyloid nature of fibrils formed under these conditions and at high pH/low salt concentration was confirmed by Thioflavin T assay. Non-fibrillar cp19k adhered most effectively to hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces

• under low pH/low salt concentration conditions, while pre-formed fibrils retained their adhesion ability upon switching to a high pH/high salt concentration environment, which was designed to mimic the change in the protein environment upon secretion in vivo. These findings support the hypothesis that

Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• walls. Since mucus is continuously secreted along the GIT, it is subsequently eliminated due to the cellular renewal process [5]. Mucus is a complex hydrogel comprising proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, salts, antibodies, bacteria, and cellular debris. Mucins are the primary protein component of mucus

• biological distribution of NPs. Increased hydrophilicity determines the degradation rate and their recognition by the reticuloendothelial system, preventing adsorption and nonspecific protein interactions. Furthermore, it enhances steric repulsion, reducing opsonization and activation of the complement

• CME, enabling targeted therapy [81]. The dimeric protein caveolin-1 is the primary agent in CvME, playing key roles in cell signaling, lipid regulation, and vesicular transport. It also defines the characteristic flask-like shape of vesicles and is located on the cytosolic side of the membrane

Advances of aptamers in esophageal cancer diagnosis, treatment and drug delivery

• Yang Fei,
• Hui Xu,
• Chunwei Zhang,
• Jingjing Wang and
• Yong Jin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1734–1750, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.121

• -delivery of a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor, specifically, small interfering RNA (siRNA) against the MDR1 gene, along with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX). This system capitalizes on the high-affinity binding of the AS1411 aptamer to nucleolin, a protein overexpressed on the surface of

• , peptide aptamers exhibit target specificity predominantly limited to protein molecules, representing a relatively constrained target spectrum. Nucleic acid aptamers, which can bind to proteins, genes, small molecules, cells and other targets, are commonly used in laboratory and clinical practice and

• efficiency. However, only a small fraction of nucleotides of the full-length aptamers obtained by SELEX are critical for interacting with the target protein. Given the propensity of non-essential nucleotide regions to induce steric constraints and nonspecific binding, systematic bioinformatic analysis

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• T-lymphocyte associated protein 4), which inhibit T-cell activation, allowing cancer cells to escape immune-mediated destruction [8]. Immunotherapy shows promise as a cancer treatment approach, encompassing strategies such as monoclonal antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, antitumor vaccines

• , cellular absorption, and slow release of drugs [38]. Polymeric nanoparticles are colloidal polymer systems used as drug carriers for targeted therapies and diagnostics [39]. Gold nanoparticles have properties such as chemical reactivity, anti-inflammatory effects, and protein-binding abilities, while

• scattering (DLS), and UV–visible (UV–vis) spectroscopy were used for characterization. The nanoparticles showed increased cellular uptake compared to free PD-L1, suppression of the NF-κB pathway as indicated by reduced PHO-P65 protein expression, and enhanced tumor inhibition due to immune activation and

Venom-loaded cationic-functionalized poly(lactic acid) nanoparticles for serum production against Tityus serrulatus scorpion

• Philippe de Castro Mesquita,
• Karla Samara Rocha Soares,
• Manoela Torres-Rêgo,
• Emanuell dos Santos-Silva,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva-Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1633–1643, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.115

• polyethylenimine for loading peptides and proteins of T. serrulatus venom, and their use as a potential immunoadjuvant was evaluated. The protein loading efficiency of about 100% and the polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis assay confirmed the success of venom loading. Dynamic light scattering and zeta potential

• controlled by diffusion mechanism was also measured. Finally, in vivo immunization in BALB/c mice showed superior efficacy of the T. serrulatus venom protein-loaded nanoparticles compared to the traditional aluminum hydroxide immunoadjuvant. Thus, the formulations shown are promising nanocarriers to be used

• vitro, creates a challenge for drug delivery systems aiming to effectively target affected tissues or cells [14][15]. Nanocarriers have been widely studied for enabling prolonged circulation and sustained drug release over time, depending on their structural properties [16][17]. Therefore, protein

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• in ferritin within the cell during a process with the help of the chaperones poly-(rC)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) and PCBP2 [52][53]. Iron is present in the cytosol in the form of ferritin and pool of accessible iron ions, called labile iron pool (LIP) [54][55]. Ferritin stores excess iron and keeps

• and aspartate, while in glial cells xag− system can also transport cysteine [71][72]. The xc− system is a transmembrane transport protein with a high affinity for cysteine, composed of Solute Carrier Family 7 Member 11 (SLC7A11) and Solute Carrier Family 3 Member 2 (SLC3A2) as a heterodimer and plays

• by the MVA pathway, acts as an antioxidant and prevents ferroptosis by suppressing lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis inhibitor protein 1 (FSP1), previously known as apoptosis-inducing factor mitochondrial-related 2 (AIFM2), has been recognized as an inhibitor of ferroptosis. FSP1 is brought to the

Acrocomia aculeata oil-loaded nanoemulsion: development, anti-inflammatory properties, and cytotoxicity evaluation

• Verónica Bautista-Robles,
• Hady Keita,
• Edgar Julián Paredes Gamero,
• Layna Tayná Brito Leite,
• Jessica de Araújo Isaías Muller,
• Mônica Cristina Toffoli Kadri,
• Ariadna Lafourcade Prada and
• Jesús Rafael Rodríguez Amado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1277–1288, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.93

• assessment of two key inflammatory parameters, namely, leukocyte migration and protein extravasation [55]. The assay demonstrated that Acrocomia aculeata nanoemulsion at a dose of 50 mg/kg has a pharmacological effect approximately two-fold greater than that of the pristine oil at 100 mg/kg (Figure 6). This

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• . The uptake of LDL inside the cells occurs mainly via receptor-mediated endocytosis by a structurally similar receptor family, similar to LDL receptor proteins including LDL receptor-related protein (LRP or megalin), very-low density lipoprotein (vLDL) receptor, and apolipoprotein E receptor-2 (ApoER2

• tumor cell death by disrupting cholesterol signaling [72]. Therefore, HDL nanoparticles not only an effective drug carrier with inherent targeting ability but can also act as a therapeutic agent against cholesterol-dependent diseases. 1.3 Protein-based biomimetic nanoparticles Peptides and proteins are

• various NPs, mostly for diagnostic or multifunctional theranostic applications. 1.3.1 Albumin. Albumin is a major protein present in blood and widely studied for drug–protein interaction and nanoparticle corona formation studies. Due to its immunocompatibility, long half-life, and abundance of binding

Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• overnight at 37 °C. Collagen-based hydrogels can be developed by using different sources of collagen. Both plant and animal protein sources can provide raw materials needed for adequate collagen production, which includes rat tail tendons [84][86][139], goat tendons [87], swine skin [88], and gelatin [87

Mechanical stability of individual bacterial cells under different osmotic pressure conditions: a nanoindentation study of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

• Lizeth García-Torres,
• Idania De Alba Montero,
• Eleazar Samuel Kolosovas-Machuca,
• Facundo Ruiz,
• Sumati Bhatia,
• Jose Luis Cuellar Camacho and
• Jaime Ruiz-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1171–1183, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.86

• mechanical response to external deformation as given in the force curves. Consequently, these results suggest that in each tested solution, the tension exhibited by the outer envelope reflects the differences in the internal osmotic pressure built within the bacterial cell wall once the corresponding protein

• protective countermeasure of PA against osmotic upshock to avoid collapse by shrinkage, it is known that cationic ions such as K+ are imported by special protein transporters and accumulated by bacteria to maintain homeostasis against hazardous external concentrations of sodium ions [54]. Also, other

Soft materials nanoarchitectonics: liquid crystals, polymers, gels, biomaterials, and others

• Katsuhiko Ariga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1025–1067, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.77

• attribute can also be harnessed for the regulated release of protein-based biopharmaceuticals. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that by incorporating functional molecules such as enzymes and their inhibitors, supramolecular polymer composite hydrogels can be employed as matrices for the controlled

• release of protein biopharmaceuticals in response to antibodies. It is anticipated that these hydrogels will prove useful in a number of biomedical applications, including the three-dimensional controlled release of drugs and proteins, the construction of hierarchical organoids, and the development of

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• play an essential role in the structure and function of biomolecules (deoxyribonucleic acid, protein, and phospholipid membrane). Hydration layers are also important to the structure and property of artificial graphene-based materials. Our recent works prove that graphene-based hydrogels are

• cell content includes about 70–95% water that creates an aqueous environment for biological processes. Water molecules are bound to biomolecular surfaces and participate in the structuring and functioning of biomolecules, typically the folding of protein and the twisting of the double helix of

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• Demian van Straten Luuk van de Schepop Rowan Frunt Pieter Vader Raymond M. Schiffelers CDL Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands 10.3762/bjnano.16.57 Abstract Nanoparticles play a crucial role in drug delivery research. The protein corona that develops on the

• surface of nanoparticles after administration has garnered substantial attention due to the significant effects it has on their performance. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) depend on protein corona formation to mediate their targeting. Such protein–nanoparticle interactions are often initially studied using in

• performed to prevent complement system activation. However, the effect of this process on protein corona formation and, in turn, LNP functionality is unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of serum heat inactivation on protein corona formation on LNPs containing D-lin-MC3-DMA (MC3) or C12-200 (C12