Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• response, is extensively investigated by addressing its molecular structure, composition, and medical uses. PU is a candidate for potential biomedical applications because of its strength, flexibility, biocompatibility, cell-adhesive properties, and high resistance to biodegradation. PU combined with silk

• biodegradable [124]. Degradation is limited in crystalline regions, while amorphous regions get degraded easily within PU. The molecular structure and composition of the polymer, its molecular weight, crystallinity, and the presence of cross-links and additives are a few elements that impact polymer degradation

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• manage NDs such as Alzheimer’s. In this review, we systematically categorize NPs used for the diagnosis and inhibition of AβOs based on their composition and functionalization. This bifurcation allows for a clearer understanding of the diverse mechanisms and applications of NPs in addressing AD. We have

• composition of exosomes can provide valuable insights into the underlying pathology, making them a promising tool for diagnostic applications. Figure 5 demonstrates how exosomes can transport AβOs and tau protein, both of which are key biomarkers associated with AD. The accumulation of these proteins is

Electron beam-based direct writing of nanostructures using a palladium β-ketoesterate complex

• Chinmai Sai Jureddy,
• Krzysztof Maćkosz,
• Aleksandra Butrymowicz-Kubiak,
• Iwona B. Szymańska,
• Patrik Hoffmann and
• Ivo Utke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 530–539, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.41

• nanostructure and composition of the deposits were determined, and possible volatile products produced under electron-induced dissociation, explaining the composition, are investigated. A method to eliminate the residual gas contamination during FEBID was implemented. [Pd(tbaoac)2] contains large organic

• , though they follow a two-step process similar to lithography techniques [26]. Since the dissociation of molecules under an electron beam on the substrate can follow multiple pathways, the deposition parameters can greatly influence the composition, leading to the creation of novel materials [27

• spectrum of electron energies, including secondary electrons (SEs) and backscattered electrons (BSEs). This has a significant impact on the resulting composition, which depends on the specific precursor used. To produce pure metal structures, new precursors are being explored for FEBID applications. In

Zeolite materials with Ni and Co: synthesis and catalytic potential in the selective hydrogenation of citral

• Inocente Rodríguez-Iznaga,
• Yailen Costa Marrero,
• Tania Farias Piñeira,
• Céline Fontaine,
• Lexane Paget,
• Beatriz Concepción Rosabal,
• Arbelio Penton Madrigal,
• Vitalii Petranovskii and
• Gwendoline Lafaye

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 520–529, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.40

• with Ni2+ and Co2+ chloride solutions through traditional ion exchange (IE) and impregnation (Imp) processes. Special attention was given to analyzing the cationic and anionic composition of the resulting materials. The catalytic potential was evaluated in the selective hydrogenation of citral, focused

• exchange in conventional solutions, in the solid phase with molten salts, and with gaseous phases. Depending on the chosen modification method, particularities regarding the elemental composition and application of the resulting materials occur [4][5][6]. Cu–Y zeolites were obtained by contacting Na–Y

• through traditional ion exchange (IE) and impregnation (Imp) processes. Emphasis is put on analyzing the cationic and anionic composition of the materials resulting from both methods and the catalytic performance in citral hydrogenation with a focus on enhancing the formation of unsaturated alcohols

N₂⁺-implantation-induced tailoring of structural, morphological, optical, and electrical characteristics of sputtered molybdenum thin films

• Usha Rani,
• Kafi Devi,
• Divya Gupta and
• Sanjeev Aggarwal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 495–509, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.38

• electron beam evaporation [10] have been reported in the literature. RF sputtering is the predominant technique for thin film deposition because of its benefits regarding layer adhesion, uniformity, composition, and deposition rate compared to other methods [11]. In the deposition of molybdenum films, RF

• material characteristics. Ion implantation is one of the most attractive techniques because it introduces considerable changes in the surface morphology and composition of the films [13][14]. The uses of implanted Mo thin films cover a broad range of applications including microelectronics and

• . Refractive index Figure 9 shows the refractive index of as-deposited and implanted Mo thin films as a function of the thickness. The refractive index increases after N2+ implantation because of several factors, notably the formation of defects and changes in the composition and structure of Mo thin films

Effect of additives on the synthesis efficiency of nanoparticles by laser-induced reduction

• Rikuto Kuroda,
• Takahiro Nakamura,
• Hideki Ina and
• Shuhei Shibata

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 464–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.35

• synthesis of various nanoparticles that maintain the crystal structure and composition of the source solid material. In contrast to those methods, laser-induced reduction in liquid (LRL) is a nanoparticle synthesis method based on reduction reactions induced by laser in solution. Synthesis of nanoparticles

• water electrolysis catalyst than IrO2 [32]. The combination and composition of elements are important to achieve superior properties to those of pure metal nanoparticles. The typical method for nanoparticles synthesis such as chemical reduction with thermal equilibrium reaction is basically limited to

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• potential use in precision medicine over the past decade. Review Synthetic polymers for enhanced ASOs delivery Polymer-assisted platforms for enhanced delivery have attracted considerable attention because of their versatile drug delivery capabilities and their diverse chemical composition, which enables

Quantification of lead through rod-shaped silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles using an electrochemical approach

• Ravinder Lamba,
• Gaurav Bhanjana,
• Neeraj Dilbaghi,
• Vivek Gupta and
• Sandeep Kumar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 422–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.33

• average diameter of Ag@ZnO NRs is approximately 70 nm. The elemental composition of the fabricated nanorods was examined through energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Figure 2c depicts the typical EDS spectrum of the produced Ag@ZnO NRs. Observations from the EDS spectrum lead to the conclusion that the

Biomimetics and bioinspired surfaces: from nature to theory and applications

• Rhainer Guillermo Ferreira,
• Thies H. Büscher,
• Manuela Rebora,
• Poramate Manoonpong,
• Zhendong Dai and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 418–421, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.32

• , substrate compliance, and overall pad geometry. The attachment system of a second stick insect species was structurally investigated by Thomas et al. [4]. This article employed a range of imaging techniques to elucidate the ultrastructure and material composition of the two attachment pad types of this

Size control of nanoparticles synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in liquids using donut-shaped beams

• Abdel Rahman Altakroury,
• Oleksandr Gatsa,
• Farbod Riahi,
• Zongwen Fu,
• Miroslava Flimelová,
• Andrei Samokhvalov,
• Stephan Barcikowski,
• Carlos Doñate-Buendía,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov and
• Bilal Gökce

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 407–417, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.31

• , respectively, by PLAL. The Cantor HEA CoCrFeNiMn target of equimolar composition was prepared by employing powder pressing as described in [18]. In brief, elemental powders of Co (purity 99.8%), Cr (99.2%), Fe (99.5%), Mn (99.6%), and Ni (99.9%) with a particle size less than 10 µm (Thermo Fisher Scientific

• materials is intended to clarify the effect of the donut-shaped beam on NP size and to approve whether factors such as phase and composition can be disregarded. For example, the inertness of gold minimizes its oxidation by laser irradiation, whereas the HEA is composed of elements prone to oxidation

• , especially in water. However, a similar trend for the different materials using the donut-shaped PLAL can indicate that the donut-shaped beam does not drastically modify the materials’ composition. This will be discussed in section Results and Discussion. Results and Discussion Figure 2 depicts the size

ReactorAFM/STM – dynamic reactions on surfaces at elevated temperature and atmospheric pressure

• Tycho Roorda,
• Hamed Achour,
• Matthijs A. van Spronsen,
• Marta E. Cañas-Ventura,
• Sander B. Roobol,
• Willem Onderwaater,
• Mirthe Bergman,
• Peter van der Tuijn,
• Gertjan van Baarle,
• Johan W. Bakker,
• Joost W. M. Frenken and
• Irene M. N. Groot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 397–406, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.30

• AFM; model catalysts; nc-AFM; operando catalysis; qPlus tuning fork sensor; Introduction Operando catalysis is the field of research that monitors the structure, composition, and morphology of a catalyst while simultaneously investigating its activity, reactivity, and selectivity under industrially

• diffraction/Auger electron spectroscopy system to verify the cleanliness, structure, and composition of the surface. The UHV system is supported by four pneumatic air legs resting on a concrete slab, which is separated from the foundation of the building, and isolated from the main floor in an ultramicroscopy

• the main setup, the sample is annealed at 800 K in 10−6 mbar of O2 to remove carbon impurities and replenish the oxygen in the oxide layer. The composition of the surface was verified by AES (not shown here). The cobalt nanoparticles were deposited by e-beam evaporation with a Co rod, an emission

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• size. The imaging was performed using TEM at 120 kV (Jeol JEM1400, Germany). The surface elements and their composition in the nanoparticle were analyzed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (PHI 5000 Versa Probe II, FEI Inc) regarding their binding energy. The fixed transmission mode was utilized

• physicochemical properties, such as size, shape, surface charge, and elemental composition using DLS, TEM, SEM, and XPS (Figure 2). The PEG–PCL NPs were characterized using a zetasizer (Nano ZS, Malvern, UK) to comprehensively assess their size, surface charge, monodispersity, and average hydrodynamic size

• information about the elemental composition, chemical states, and electronic states of the elements present in the nanoparticles. The XPS spectra of the PEG–PCL nanoparticles (Figure 2e) showed prominent peaks at binding energies of 284.8, 532.7, and 486.7 eV, corresponding to carbon, oxygen, and tin

Development of a mucoadhesive drug delivery system and its interaction with gastric cells

• Ahmet Baki Sahin,
• Serdar Karakurt and
• Deniz Sezlev Bilecen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 371–384, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.28

• ) nanoparticles, topography, surface composition, size, and charge distribution of the delivery system were determined. The topography of the nanoparticles was studied with SEM (Figure 1). Both Alg and EudAlg nanoparticles are spherical with smooth surfaces (Figure 1A,B). It should be noted that during SEM

• -Eud-F-Alg NPs. Surface composition of nanoparticles The surface composition of the nanoparticles was characterized with ATR-FTIR (Figure 2). For Alg nanoparticles, distinctive bands were observed at 1567 and 1405 cm−1, which were assigned to asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of

• with gold (4 nm). STEM micrographs were obtained from one drop of nanoparticle suspension dripped on an ultrathin carbon-coated copper grid. Surface composition of nanoparticles For the analysis of various functional groups on the surface of nanoparticles before and after coating, attenuated total

Tailoring of physical properties of RF-sputtered ZnTe films: role of substrate temperature

• Kafi Devi,
• Usha Rani,
• Arun Kumar,
• Divya Gupta and
• Sanjeev Aggarwal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 333–348, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.25

• ][18][19][20][21][22][23] which show that chemical composition and morphology of the substrate affect the properties of grown films. Therefore, a suitable substrate needs to selected before the deposition of films. The thermal expansion coefficient of substrate and the lattice mismatch between film and

• obtained micrographs were then analysed regarding various statistical parameters such as roughness, skewness, kurtosis, and power spectral density using the NanoScope Analysis software. Surface morphology and composition of the films were studied by field-emission scanning electron microscopy attached with

• of the substrate. A significant change in particle size along with a change in agglomerated particle density occurs with increasing substrate temperature. The surface is free from pinholes and voids, and clusters of particles can be seen. Quantitative analysis of the surface composition was carried

Enhancing mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers: a comprehensive review

• Nur Areisman Mohd Salleh,
• Amalina Muhammad Afifi,
• Fathiah Mohamed Zuki and
• Hanna Sofia SalehHudin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 286–307, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.22

• . For example, collagen is one substance used in electrospinning that has low strength [22]. Its loose structure and weak composition are the reasons behind its inherent poor mechanical performance. Electrospinning solutions with non-Newtonian fluids come next. They exhibit unstable properties

• current techniques and methods for improving the mechanical properties of electrospun nanofibers, thereby enhancing their application in various fields. Materials composition Chitosan is an intriguing material derived from chitin. Because of its promising properties, it has attracted significant attention

• their material composition, fiber diameter, and structural arrangement. The mechanical properties of PVA/chitosan-based nanofibers, such as tensile strength, elasticity, and elongation at break, are crucial for determining their suitability for various applications. Tensile properties Tensile strength

Emerging strategies in the sustainable removal of antibiotics using semiconductor-based photocatalysts

• Yunus Ahmed,
• Keya Rani Dutta,
• Parul Akhtar,
• Md. Arif Hossen,
• Md. Jahangir Alam,
• Obaid A. Alharbi,
• Hamad AlMohamadi and
• Abdul Wahab Mohammad

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 264–285, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.21

• effectively promotes the degradation of antibiotics from contaminated water. Researchers have conducted experiments to evaluate the efficacy of various photocatalysts in eliminating different antibiotics from their respective environments. Research on catalyst composition and application has evolved through

• engineering because of its uncomplicated composition, affordable price, and easy manufacturing process. Bi2O3 is widely recognised as a polycrystalline photocatalyst that exhibits four main phases. The majority of these phases are determined to be unstable, with α-Bi2O3 appearing at low temperatures and δ

Preferential enrichment and extraction of laser-synthesized nanoparticles in organic phases

• Theo Fromme,
• Maximilian L. Spiekermann,
• Florian Lehmann,
• Stephan Barcikowski,
• Thomas Seidensticker and
• Sven Reichenberger

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 254–263, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.20

• in liquid; laser synthesis and processing of colloids; phase transfer; size separation; thermomorphic multiphase system; Introduction Laser ablation in liquids (LAL) provides nanoparticles without the need of external surfactants while retaining the initial composition of the educt material in the

• properties and surface chemistry of the gained colloids. The use of organic solvents as liquid may result in reactive LAL processes [1][10] that cause elements from the solvent molecules (and solutes) to be part of the final nanoparticle’s composition. The solvent decomposition induced by laser-based

• propylene carbonate and 1-nonanol TMS and observed their phase preference to gain insights if the nanoparticle material has an impact on the preferred phase. We further narrowed down the influence of the TMS composition by varying the alkyl chain length of the alcohol from C6 to C11 and, consequently

Synthesis and the impact of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles on the viability and activity of rhizobacteria

• Bedah Rupaedah,
• Indrika Novella,
• Atiek Rostika Noviyanti,
• Diana Rakhmawaty Eddy,
• Anna Safarrida,
• Abdul Hapid,
• Zhafira Amila Haqqa,
• Suryana Suryana,
• Irwan Kurnia and
• Fathiyah Inayatirrahmi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 216–228, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.17

• the elemental composition of the rhizobacteria-nHA comprising Ca, P, O, and C. Ca, P, and O constitute the components of the nHA carrier material, while C originates from the rhizobacteria. The percentage of carbon in the Pd-nHA sample is notably higher, reaching 59.04%, compared to the 46.14% of the

• base pairs. The primer concentration used was 10 pmol/μL. The PCR composition consisted of 12.5 μL GoTaq® Green Master Mix, 2 μL of forward and reverse primers, 50 ng/μL DNA template, and 6.5 µL dH2O. The PCR cycle was carried out as follows: an initial denaturation at 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 30

• composition of the Pd-nHA sample. Elemental composition of the Tb-nHA sample. Solubilizing index (SI) of rhizobacteria loaded onto the nHA carrier. Nitrogen-fixing activity of rhizobacteria loaded onto the carrier.a Supporting Information Supporting Information File 16: Activity tests of Pd and Tb

Recent advances in photothermal nanomaterials for ophthalmic applications

• Jiayuan Zhuang,
• Linhui Jia,
• Chenghao Li,
• Rui Yang,
• Jiapeng Wang,
• Wen-an Wang,
• Heng Zhou and
• Xiangxia Luo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 195–215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.16

• carbon, semiconductor materials offer greater flexibility in photothermal property design because of a broader range of choices in chemical composition and crystal structure, coupled with well-established strategies for manipulating light absorption range through band engineering [79][80][81][82]. The

• through coating processes or surface modifications. While structure and composition of new ophthalmic photothermal nanomaterials are often complex, understanding the safety of base materials can provide insights into the safety of more advanced derivatives. Safety discussions should include detailed

A review of metal-organic frameworks and polymers in mixed matrix membranes for CO₂ capture

• Charlotte Skjold Qvist Christensen,
• Nicholas Hansen,
• Mahboubeh Motadayen,
• Nina Lock,
• Martin Lahn Henriksen and
• Jonathan Quinson

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 155–186, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.14

• loadings also increase the likelihood of MOF aggregation (detailed in section 3.5), which may strongly impair the mixed gas separation performance [80]. As a result, achieving the optimal MMM composition is imperative to attain a synergetic effect, leading to the desired case of a design allowing for both

• precursor slurry undergoes phase separation under altered solvent, composition, or temperature conditions to form a porous support phase and a dense MMM phase [80][87][92][94]. Finally, fabrication of thin selective MMM layers on top of porous substrates can be accomplished via spin coating [95]. Defects

• size tuning, the gas solubility and diffusivity within the polymer matrix must be optimized for the specific CO2 mixed gas separation application for optimal CO2 capture [112]. Particularly, the free volume within the polymer matrix and the polymer composition determine the gas diffusivity and

Clays enhanced with niobium: potential in wastewater treatment and reuse as pigment with antibacterial activity

• Silvia Jaerger,
• Patricia Appelt,
• Mario Antônio Alves da Cunha,
• Fabián Ccahuana Ayma,
• Ricardo Schneider,
• Carla Bittencourt and
• Fauze Jacó Anaissi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 141–154, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.13

• mode. Powder and paint-applied samples were analyzed by colorimetry, based on the CIEL*a*b* system, using a portable colorimeter (NR60CP – 3NH). The oxidation state and elemental composition of the samples were evaluated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) with a PHI Genesis instrument from

• samples containing niobium show a higher density of spectral lines. For the sample BE, the principal emissions lines for Mg2+, Al3+, Na+, at around 279 nm, 309 nm and 589 nm, respectively, are consistent with the montmorillonite structure, and these results are coherent with XPS composition in Table 1

• exchanged with Na+ ions of the clay, due to the decreased percentage of these elements in XPS composition as observed in Figure 5. The LIBS results showed the presence of lines of Mg and Na for the BE sample, at around 280 nm and 819 nm, respectively. As demonstrated in Table 1, the compositions of Na were

TiO₂ immobilized on 2D mordenite: effect of hydrolysis conditions on structural, textural, and optical characteristics of the nanocomposites

• Marina G. Shelyapina,
• Rosario Isidro Yocupicio-Gaxiola,
• Gleb A. Valkovsky and
• Vitalii Petranovskii

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 128–140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.12

• accuracy of the experiment). Therefore, this step is immediately followed by condensation: The final composition of the hydrolysis products of alkoxides of titanium roughly corresponds to TiO1.5(OR)·yROH, where y = 0.15–1.00 depending on the nature of the alcohol. The residual carbon during thermal

• treatment in air is eliminated in the process of crystallization at 400–550 °C; thus, titanium dioxide nanoparticles are obtained [29]. In this study we investigate in detail the influence of the hydrolysis medium and the duration of the hydrolytic process on composition, local structure, morphology

• /hydrophobic properties than the samples hydrolyzed in pure water. It is known that the hydrophilicity of TiO2 depends on the crystalline phase and surface composition, but not on the size [43]. Moreover, it was found that introduction of TiO2 into an amorphous siliceous matrix increases the hydrophilicity of

Characterization of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GP258

• Prashantkumar Siddappa Chakra,
• Aishwarya Banakar,
• Shriram Narayan Puranik,
• Vishwas Kaveeshwar,
• C. R. Ravikumar and
• Devaraja Gayathri

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 78–89, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.8

• measurements were employed to analyze the morphology, dimensions, and elemental composition of the generated nanoparticles. The experimental outcomes confirmed the presence of hexagonal wurtzite-structured ZnO NPs with an average size of 10 nm. The colloidal system demonstrated excellent stability with a zeta

• wrinkled pattern, and it was found that the NPs average size was 72 nm. The presence of ZnO NPs on the surface was confirmed through EDX, which showed characteristic elemental peaks validating the composition (Figure 4a–d). Zeta potential The ZnO NPs synthesized using GP258 showed good stability as

• ) EDX spectroscopy for elemental composition. (e) Zeta potential measurement. (f) DLS results showing the size distribution of ZnO NPs. (a, b) Cyclic voltammetry response of the ZnO electrode in 0.1 M KCl solution at varying scan rates, showing redox behavior and electron transfer characteristics. (c

Theoretical study of the electronic and optical properties of a composite formed by the zeolite NaA and a magnetite cluster

• Joel Antúnez-García,
• Roberto Núñez-González,
• Vitalii Petranovskii,
• H’Linh Hmok,
• Armando Reyes-Serrato,
• Fabian N. Murrieta-Rico,
• Mufei Xiao and
• Jonathan Zamora

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 44–53, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.5

• characteristics of zeolites depend largely on the chemical composition of the framework, specifically the Si/Al ratio [1][2]. These characteristics make zeolites highly appealing for a wide range of applications, including the production of fine chemicals [3][4], gas separation [5][6][7], ion exchange [8][9][10

• response are intricately linked to factors such as the chemical composition, particle size, structure, and geometry of these materials [18][19][20]. Hence, it is generally undesirable for nanoscale materials to undergo structural alterations because of environmental exposure or to change their properties

Bioinspired nanofilament coatings for scale reduction on steel

• Siad Dahir Ali,
• Mette Heidemann Rasmussen,
• Jacopo Catalano,
• Christian Husum Frederiksen and
• Tobias Weidner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 25–34, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.3

• expected for SNF coating are clearly visible from a coated steel surface. Figure 3B and Figure 3C show the images of the measured angle of the coated and uncoated steel surfaces. The related atomic composition of the coating was analyzed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) for both coated steel

• surfaces. The elemental composition in Figure 4B shows the silicon emission expected for the SNF film, which is not present on the bare steel surface. Oxygen and carbon, additional components of the SNF coating, are also detected for the SNFs. At the same time, these elements are also observed on the bare

• steel substrate and the elemental composition of the SNFs is difficult to disentangle. The contact angle of the uncoated surfaces was 71°. The contact angle of the SNF-coated surfaces is more difficult to measure as the droplet will not attach itself to the surface seen for Figure 3B and Figure 5D, in