Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• ability to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. These self-assembled vesicles consist of phospholipid bilayers that encapsulate an aqueous core, allowing for the entrapment of various therapeutic agents [57]. Liposomes can be designed to carry multiple types of drugs within the same system

• encapsulate a wide variety of therapeutic agents, from hydrophilic to hydrophobic compounds. Due to their biocompatibility and easy formulation, polymeric NPs can be engineered to offer precise control over drug release, stability, and targeting, making them ideal candidates in the treatment of infections [77

• copolymers, exhibit good stability and cargo-retention efficiency, making them ideal for cytosolic drug delivery [79]. Polymeric micelles, with a hydrophilic core and hydrophobic outer shell, protect aqueous drug cargo and improve circulation time, often being used for the delivery of cancer therapeutics [80

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• hydrophobic phospholipid bilayer and a hydrophilic core. Depending on the physicochemical properties of the drug, this type of structure allows the entrapment of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs [1]. Liposomes, like other nanosystems, have many benefits, such as prolonged systemic blood circulation

• hydrophilic and hydrophobic therapeutic agents, they improve the solubility and efficacy of drugs, especially those with poor aqueous solubility. Liposomes reduce the impact on healthy tissue while delivering strong drug concentrations directly to the tumor, minimizing the harmful side effects of chemotherapy

• hydrophobic substances and offer additional advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, lack of immunogenicity, and flexibility for chemical and structural modifications [142][143]. Recent developments in liposomes focus on modifying their chemical and structural properties to target

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• physicochemical and biological properties, and incredible potential of being therapeutic agent carriers for biomedical applications [10][11]. They are capable to deliver a range of therapeutics including genes, vaccines, biological macromolecules, hydrophobic/hydrophilic drugs, and proteins to certain organs such

• phospholipids and apolipoproteins [55]. Lipoproteins include, among others, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Due to the hydrophobic core and prolonged circulation, they have been used in drug delivery. The lipid core of the lipoprotein tend to load a variety of lipophilic drug

• cholesterol uptake, and induce ferroptosis of the cancer cells [67]. HDL presents many features that make it ideal for drug delivery applications including biocompatibility and biodegradability, long circulation, hydrophobic core, and small size. The main lipoprotein of HDL is alpha apolipoprotein (apo A-I

Functional bio-packaging enhanced with nanocellulose from rice straw and cinnamon essential oil Pickering emulsion for fruit preservation

• Tuyen B. Ly,
• Duong D. T. Nguyen,
• Hieu D. Nguyen,
• Yen T. H. Nguyen,
• Bup T. A. Bui,
• Kien A. Le and
• Phung K. Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1234–1245, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.91

• of persimmons was maintained up to 63 days in cold storage [35]. The major challenge of using CEO is its hydrophobic nature, which prevents it from blending with the biopackaging casting solution, and its volatile and unstable structure, which can lead to significant loss of efficacy over time [36

Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• barriers and deliver therapeutic agents with high precision and efficiency [141][142][143]. Among the ultrasmall systems, cyclodextrin-based nanogels have attracted considerable attention. Cyclodextrins are oligosaccharides with a hydrophobic core and a hydrophilic external surface, facilitating the

• as drug carriers to deliver hydrophobic [153] and hydrophilic [154] molecules as well as biomolecules, including proteins [155] and nucleic acids [156]. These nanocarriers can be obtained from biodegradable and biocompatible materials [157], showing singular properties, such as stimuli-responsiveness

Investigation of the solubility of protoporphyrin IX in aqueous and hydroalcoholic solvent systems

• Michelly de Sá Matsuoka,
• Giovanna Carla Cadini Ruiz,
• Marcos Luciano Bruschi and
• Jéssica Bassi da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1209–1215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.89

• self-assembly of monomers into micelles with a hydrophobic core of polypropylene oxide (PPO) and a hydrophilic corona of polyethylene oxide (PEO), creating an environment suitable for the encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs such as PpIX [15]. These micelles enhance drug solubility, protect against

• solubility and stability for hydrophobic compounds. In systems containing 10% (w/w) P407 with 0.4 mg/mL PpIX (EtOH50, EtOH77, and water), the complete solubilization was achieved regardless of the solvent used. Figure 4 shows the solubilization kinetics in the polymeric systems. The average concentrations

• after 8 h were 0.593 ± 0.063 mg/mL for water-based systems, 0.503 ± 0.043 mg/mL for EtOH50, and 0.507 ± 0.104 mg/mL for EtOH77, which is consistent with previous reports on micellar stabilization of hydrophobic drugs [16]. These systems remained clear and free of precipitates for up to 96 h, suggesting

Mechanical stability of individual bacterial cells under different osmotic pressure conditions: a nanoindentation study of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

• Lizeth García-Torres,
• Idania De Alba Montero,
• Eleazar Samuel Kolosovas-Machuca,
• Facundo Ruiz,
• Sumati Bhatia,
• Jose Luis Cuellar Camacho and
• Jaime Ruiz-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1171–1183, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.86

• bacterial adhesion through short-range electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Before deposition on the PLL-coated substrate, the bacterial suspension was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 3 min, and the resulting supernatant was removed. The bacteria were then resuspended in 150 μL of PBS to increase their

Fabrication of metal complex phthalocyanine and porphyrin nanoparticle aqueous colloids by pulsed laser fragmentation in liquid and their potential application to a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy

• Taisei Himeda,
• Risako Kunitomi,
• Ryosuke Nabeya,
• Tamotsu Zako and
• Tsuyoshi Asahi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1088–1096, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.80

• biological optical window (wavelengths from 650 to 1000 nm) and have recently attracted attention for applications in biomedical research such as photoacoustic imaging of tissues and PDT of tumors [2][3]. Porphyrins and Pcs are hydrophobic hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water. Hence, polymer composite

• the activity of the target substance in general. An alternative and promising method for dispersing hydrophobic organic compounds as colloids is pulsed laser fragmentation in liquids (PLFL) [9][10]. This relatively new fabrication method has advantages because a microcrystalline sample powder

• suspended in a poor solvent is fragmented into nanoparticles by intense pulsed laser irradiation, and the sample suspension is directly converted in to a colloidal dispersion without any chemical additives in one step. It has been demonstrated that several hydrophobic dyes such as metal complex Pcs (MPcs

Soft materials nanoarchitectonics: liquid crystals, polymers, gels, biomaterials, and others

• Katsuhiko Ariga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1025–1067, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.77

• formation of more ordered, hydrophobic coatings, while the incorporated polymers retain their electroactive properties. Ion transport through the film is still possible. Nanoarchitectonics polymer composite films can incorporate bioelectroactive proteins such as glucose oxidase. The high hydrophobicity

• materials nanoarchitectonics. Cornez, Azzaroni, and colleagues describe the preparation and functionalization of highly organized layered multilayer structures by layer-by-layer organization of lipid-like surfactants and polyelectrolytes (Figure 15) [276]. In this study, hydrophobic lamellar domains were

• achieved through the synergistic reaction of the proton coupling electron transfer reaction and the insertion of hydrophobic ions. This process has enabled the efficient doping of crystalline organic semiconductor thin films at room temperature. By examining the conditions, it is possible to achieve strong

A calix[4]arene-based supramolecular nanoassembly targeting cancer cells and triggering the release of nitric oxide with green light

• Cristina Parisi,
• Loredana Ferreri,
• Tassia J. Martins,
• Francesca Laneri,
• Samantha Sollima,
• Antonina Azzolina,
• Antonella Cusimano,
• Nicola D’Antona,
• Grazia M. L. Consoli and
• Salvatore Sortino

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1003–1013, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.75

• cancer cells that overexpress the choline transporters, and it can be visualized thanks to the fluorescent tag. The fluorogenic unit also acts as a green light harvesting center, making the nanoassembly a photo-nanoreactor able to encapsulate a hydrophobic nitric oxide (NO) photodonor, otherwise

• antenna to trigger the NO release from the hydrophobic NOPD 2. Compound 1 was prepared by a two-step synthesis according to Scheme 2 (see Supporting Information File 1 for details) starting from the known calix[4]arene derivative 1a [60]. In brief, compound 1a treated with chloroacetic acid provided

• with a PI of ca. 0.3 (inset Figure 4A). The supramolecular construct 1·2 was stable for days, and its formation and stability can be reasonably attributed to both hydrophobic and stacking interactions between the aliphatic chains and the aromatic regions of the host and guest components. Encapsulation

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• supramolecular hydration structures that preserve graphene nanosheets from the restacking through hydrophobic force, van der Waals force, and π–π interaction. In this manuscript, density functional theory and high-performance computing (HPC) are used for modeling and calculating van der Waals force between

• interactions, a type of van der Waals force, for supramolecular attraction [9]. Particularly, graphene sheets with a large surface area and π-conjugated network are likely to stack together through hydrophobic agglomeration and π–π interaction. Although π–π interactions are generally weaker than hydrogen

Efficiency of single-pulse laser fragmentation of organic nutraceutical dispersions in a circular jet flow-through reactor

• Tina Friedenauer,
• Maximilian Spellauge,
• Alexander Sommereyns,
• Verena Labenski,
• Tuba Esatbeyoglu,
• Christoph Rehbock,
• Heinz P. Huber and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 711–727, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.55

• often are hydrophobic, is their increased solubilization or aqueous dispersion, relevant for pharmacological, photochemical, and photomedical applications. For example, metal complex phthalocyanines (Pc) [18] such as vanadium (VOPc) [19][20][21][22], copper (CuPc) [23][24], aluminum (AlPc) [24], and

• . Moreover, the created surface area is also a descriptor highly relevant for application (as the solubility of hydrophobic particle dispersions in water is proportional to the surface [67][68]). For simplified calculations of the total surface created by LFL, we assumed all particles to be ideal spheres

The impact of tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane hole transport layer doping on interfacial charge extraction and recombination

• Konstantinos Bidinakis and
• Stefan A. L. Weber

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 678–689, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.52

• ], thus leading to an improved morphology and uniformity of the resulting layer. However, its unfavorable long-term impact on stability indicates that new doping strategies might be required in the future [35][36]. For this, there have been efforts for finding cheap hydrophobic acidic substances with good

Aprepitant-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: a novel approach to enhance oral bioavailability

• Mazhar Hussain,
• Muhammad Farooq,
• Muhammad Asad Saeed,
• Muhammad Ijaz,
• Sherjeel Adnan,
• Zeeshan Masood,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Wafa Ishaq and
• Nabeela Ameer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 652–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.50

• poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). The PPO segments are hydrophobic, while the PEO segments are hydrophilic [15]. Comparing APT-CD-NPs and APT-PX-NPs, the solubility in APT-CD-NPs was higher because β-CD is more hydrophilic than poloxamer 407. Poloxamer 407 shows thermoreversible properties. Drug content and

• SLN formulations in distilled water exhibited a homogeneous white color. The encapsulation efficacy of the SLNs formulations was in the range of 25.33% ± 0.89% to 80.55% ± 0.15%. A higher content of β-CD in the formulation enhanced the encapsulated amount of APT. The hydrophobic structure of β-CD

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• known that microemulsions promote greater bioavailability of hydrophobic molecules orally due to the nanometric size of the droplets. Additionally, nonionic surfactants such as Tween® and Cremophor® inhibit CYP3A metabolism or P-glycoprotein drug efflux, thus improving intestinal drug absorption. Thus

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• were used just as they were provided [155]. Because of its excellent barrier qualities and oxygen permeability, PU is commonly utilized in wound dressings [156]. Since PU is soft and hydrophobic, using it as a dressing material on its own would be unsuitable because the dressing might be too soft for

• use in the medical field. Also, its hydrophobic property might prevent fluid from seeping from the wound surface [157]. To investigate PU composites for the possible use in wound dressings, researchers have carried out a considerable amount of research. To obtain desired features like higher cell

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• physicochemical properties, diverse structural forms, and potential applications in combating NDs. The unique characteristics of CNMs, including their hydrophobic surfaces and variable dimensions, enable them to interact effectively with biomolecules, making them valuable tools in biomedical research and

• , particularly those associated with NDs like AD. Research has demonstrated the ability of fullerenes to prevent the aggregation of Aβ peptides. For instance, molecular dynamics simulations have shown that fullerenes inhibit the fibrillation of the hydrophobic KLVFFAE peptide by disrupting the formation of β

• . These studies reveal that SWCNTs interact with the hydrophobic residues of Aβ peptides, particularly through π-stacking interactions with aromatic amino acids such as phenylalanine. This interaction destabilizes the prefibrillar β-sheet structures, preventing the formation of toxic oligomers and

Functionalized gold nanoflowers on carbon screen-printed electrodes: an electrochemical platform for biosensing hemagglutinin protein of influenza A H1N1 virus

• Carlos Enrique Torres-Méndez,
• Sharmilee Nandi,
• Klara Martinovic,
• Patrizia Kühne,
• Yifan Liu,
• Sam Taylor,
• Maria Lysandrou,
• Maria Ines Berrojo Romeyro Mascarenhas,
• Viktoria Langwallner,
• Javier Enrique Sebastián Alonso,
• Ivana Jovanovic,
• Maike Lüftner,
• Georgia-Vasiliki Gkountana,
• David Bern,
• Abdul-Raouf Atif,
• Ehsan Manouchehri Doulabi,
• Gemma Mestres and
• Masood Kamali-Moghaddam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 540–550, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.42

• , followed by blocking with bovine serum albumin to minimize nonspecific hydrophobic binding. The electrodes were characterized by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy experiments in the presence of [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−. Differential pulse voltammetry was used to measure the change in

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• . Additionally, the attachment of hydrophobic moieties, amino acids, and small peptides to linear and branched PEI has been explored as an alternative to improve the biostability and bioavailability of cationic polyplexes while offering a targeted delivery with reduced cytotoxicity that is frequently associated

• conjugated carriers demonstrated greater transfection activity and protein silencing while keeping low levels of cytotoxicity compared to naked and oligonucleotide–PEI complexes. This improvement was attributed to the unsaturated nature of the hydrophobic moieties in the conjugates. In another study, Cheng

• and coworkers synthesised a library of bPEI polyplexes grafted with hydrophobic ligands including aliphatic alkanes, fluoroalkanes, and cycloalkanes of varying lengths and analysed the structure–activity relationship of these compounds to deliver anti-luciferase siRNA oligonucleotides [119]. All PEI

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• sulfate group, with sodium as the counter-ion. The amphiphilic structure of SDS, integrating a hydrophobic alkyl chain and a hydrophilic headgroup, confers unique physicochemical properties that are leveraged in various applications. However, the widespread use of SDS in different applications led to the

• and PCL to produce amphiphilic nanoparticles which possess both hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments. PEG, known for its water solubility and biocompatibility, provides the hydrophilic component, while PCL, a biodegradable polyester, contributes with hydrophobicity, enabling the formation of

• alternating addition is crucial for creating the amphiphilic structure, where PEG provides the hydrophilic domains, and PCL forms the hydrophobic domains. The copolymerization reaction can proceed for approximately 24 hours, during which nucleation and growth of the nanoparticles occur. The reaction duration

Enhancing mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers: a comprehensive review

• Nur Areisman Mohd Salleh,
• Amalina Muhammad Afifi,
• Fathiah Mohamed Zuki and
• Hanna Sofia SalehHudin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 286–307, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.22

• release time of substances by exploiting the surface properties and interactions between hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers [86]. This sequential method of producing composite fibers is generally easier than the other methods as the different materials are electrospun separately, eliminating concerns

• nanofibers with different materials has a significant impact on protecting sensitive drugs through the shell layer, reducing burst release, and controlling the release of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs [188][189]. In recent research, chitosan/PVA nanofibrous scaffolds loaded with active components

Radiosensitizing properties of dual-functionalized carbon nanostructures loaded with temozolomide

• Radmila Milenkovska,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Petre Makreski,
• Dushko Lukarski,
• Igor Stojkovski,
• Maja Simonoska Crcarevska and
• Kristina Mladenovska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 229–251, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.18

• for active agent loading and functionalization with (intra)cellular component targeting ligands, and extremely small size for crossing the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and targeted delivery to the brain. The hydrophobic nature of the CNs offers good membrane permeability. Through chemical modifications

• (i.e., oxidation) of their surface, CNs with optimal hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties and increased dispersibility can be obtained as preconditions for biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Also, improved electronic, mechanical, and thermal properties as preconditions for (photo)thermal and

• graphene sheets, formed by interactions between the hydrophobic regions of graphene and the side walls of MWCNTs. Also, in the SEM and TEM images of TMZ-loaded non-modified CNs, entrapment of TMZ into the tubes and wrapping around the CNs was visible [43]. In the present study, the covalent PEGylation and

TiO₂ immobilized on 2D mordenite: effect of hydrolysis conditions on structural, textural, and optical characteristics of the nanocomposites

• Marina G. Shelyapina,
• Rosario Isidro Yocupicio-Gaxiola,
• Gleb A. Valkovsky and
• Vitalii Petranovskii

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 128–140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.12

• /hydrophobic properties than the samples hydrolyzed in pure water. It is known that the hydrophilicity of TiO2 depends on the crystalline phase and surface composition, but not on the size [43]. Moreover, it was found that introduction of TiO2 into an amorphous siliceous matrix increases the hydrophilicity of

Comparison of organic and inorganic hole transport layers in double perovskite material-based solar cell

• Deepika K and
• Arjun Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 119–127, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.11

• PEDOT:PSS are the two HTLs that are analyzed concerning the double perovskite material LNMO. The HTL needs better conductivity, better electron blocking, and more hole mobility for better carrier transportation at the perovskite/HTL interface. It is hydrophobic with a wider bandgap and does not easily

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

• surface with hydrophilic polymers such as PEG. PEGylation is widely used for its “stealth” effect, hindering protein adsorption on the hydrophobic polymer surface by steric repulsion [36]. However, the long-term use of PEGylated NCs for treating chronic diseases can lead to side effects, such as

• large size (≈25 μm) facilitates the efficient loading of diverse drugs (e.g., hydrophilic or hydrophobic) [55]. As detailed in Section 2, macrophages persist throughout acute and chronic inflammatory phases, broadening their therapeutic applicability across various pathological conditions. This chapter