Feasibility analysis of carbon nanofiber synthesis and morphology control using a LPG premixed flame

• Iftikhar Rahman Bishal,
• Muhammad Hilmi Ibrahim,
• Norikhwan Hamzah,
• Mohd Zamri Mohd Yusop,
• Faizuan Bin Abdullah,
• I Putu Tedy Indrayana and
• Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 581–590, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.45

• . An optimum height above burner of 10 mm at which the temperature is around 650 °C was used in the synthesis process. Zirconia beads impregnated with nickel nitrate catalyst have been employed. Dense CNF growth with an average diameter of 77.9 nm was observed at an equivalence ratio of 1.8; as the

• nucleation rate, which in turn increases the catalyst particle size and the amount of free carbon atoms, producing CNFs with larger diameters and amorphous carbon. According to Raman analysis, the grown CNFs have a high number of defects, which may be good for applications where defective nanomaterials are

• optimization of CNT/CNF synthesis in flame environments. An ethylene/air co-flow, non-premixed flame was used with a catalyst substrate of iron, nickel, and platinum wires of 0.1–0.25 mm diameter. The study found that carbon monoxide is a major contributor to CNT formation in flames, and the model also showed

Zeolite materials with Ni and Co: synthesis and catalytic potential in the selective hydrogenation of citral

• Inocente Rodríguez-Iznaga,
• Yailen Costa Marrero,
• Tania Farias Piñeira,
• Céline Fontaine,
• Lexane Paget,
• Beatriz Concepción Rosabal,
• Arbelio Penton Madrigal,
• Vitalii Petranovskii and
• Gwendoline Lafaye

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 520–529, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.40

• Ni2+ isolated cations, attributed to synergistic interactions that weakened the cation–framework binding. Catalytic activity tests showed that nickel species were primarily responsible for citronellal formation. Among all materials, the bimetallic CoNiIE catalyst, prepared by IE, was the only one to

• and cinnamaldehyde [3][14][15]. Zeolites modified with nickel and cobalt have shown promising results in selective hydrogenation reactions, owing to their high dispersion of active sites and tunable acidity. For instance, a zeolite-supported Ni catalyst has demonstrated selectivity in furfural

• hydrogenation and the formation of citronellal are higher for catalysts containing nickel compared to those containing cobalt (Figure 6). This suggests that the most active catalytic sites for the conversion of citral to citronellal are associated with nickel species. Notably, the bimetallic CoNiZIE catalyst is

Effect of additives on the synthesis efficiency of nanoparticles by laser-induced reduction

• Rikuto Kuroda,
• Takahiro Nakamura,
• Hideki Ina and
• Shuhei Shibata

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 464–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.35

• water electrolysis catalyst than IrO2 [32]. The combination and composition of elements are important to achieve superior properties to those of pure metal nanoparticles. The typical method for nanoparticles synthesis such as chemical reduction with thermal equilibrium reaction is basically limited to

Quantification of lead through rod-shaped silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles using an electrochemical approach

• Ravinder Lamba,
• Gaurav Bhanjana,
• Neeraj Dilbaghi,
• Vivek Gupta and
• Sandeep Kumar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 422–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.33

• of oxygen on the surface by means of the formation of oxygen vacancies, leading to enhanced catalytic activity. Also, the small doping of Ag introduces more active sites on the catalyst surface, potentially improving the overall catalytic activity [12][13]. This study demonstrates an efficient and

ReactorAFM/STM – dynamic reactions on surfaces at elevated temperature and atmospheric pressure

• Tycho Roorda,
• Hamed Achour,
• Matthijs A. van Spronsen,
• Marta E. Cañas-Ventura,
• Sander B. Roobol,
• Willem Onderwaater,
• Mirthe Bergman,
• Peter van der Tuijn,
• Gertjan van Baarle,
• Johan W. Bakker,
• Joost W. M. Frenken and
• Irene M. N. Groot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 397–406, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.30

• AFM; model catalysts; nc-AFM; operando catalysis; qPlus tuning fork sensor; Introduction Operando catalysis is the field of research that monitors the structure, composition, and morphology of a catalyst while simultaneously investigating its activity, reactivity, and selectivity under industrially

• whether a given catalyst becomes reactive, is referred to as the pressure gap. To provide an interpretive framework for catalysts under industrial conditions, new experimental and theoretical analysis tools are required. While recent years have witnessed a tremendous effort in this direction [3], many of

• these techniques are photon-based [4][5][6][7][8][9]. Even though they provide valuable insights, the development of surface-sensitive techniques that can image the catalyst at the atomic scale under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions remains crucial. In attempting to close the pressure gap

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• vigorously stirred in a silicon oil bath at 130 °C. Subsequently, a syringe introduced 2 mL of ε-caprolactone and 1 mL of stannous octoate (as a reaction catalyst) into the molten mPEG. The polymerization reaction was conducted under vacuum with continuous stirring at 130 °C for 24 h. After the

• nanoparticles that can interact with both aqueous and non-aqueous environments. The synthesis begins with the interaction of the metal oxide initiator, tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate (Sn(oct)2), with the monomers ethylene oxide and ε-caprolactone. Sn(oct)2 acts as a catalyst, activating the monomers by generating

• , respectively. The presence of carbon and oxygen peaks confirms the composition of the PEG–PCL polymer matrix, while the tin peak is attributable to the stannous octoate catalyst used during the synthesis of the nanoparticles. The absence of unexpected peaks in the XPS spectra indicates that no significant

Pulsed laser in liquid grafting of gold nanoparticle–carbon support composites

• Madeleine K. Wilsey,
• Teona Taseska,
• Qishen Lyu,
• Connor P. Cox and
• Astrid M. Müller

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 349–361, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.26

• reactions and can create unwanted side products [7]. Long-term surfactant stability and associated catalyst agglomeration or detachment are another issue. Post-synthetic attachment of catalyst nanoparticles is poorly scalable, creates large amounts of organic hazardous waste, and results in wastage of

• unattached catalyst material, which is especially problematic with precious catalysts. Overall, separate nanoparticle synthesis–attachment produces composites with adhesion, durability, electrical contact, and concomitant energy efficiency issues. Here, we report a new one-step pulsed laser grafting process

• methodology is more rapid and efficient than existing processes because it obviates the heating, cooling, and separation steps of traditional chemical nanoparticle syntheses. It additionally eliminates post-synthetic attachment of catalyst nanoparticles that results in wastage of unattached catalyst material

Emerging strategies in the sustainable removal of antibiotics using semiconductor-based photocatalysts

• Yunus Ahmed,
• Keya Rani Dutta,
• Parul Akhtar,
• Md. Arif Hossen,
• Md. Jahangir Alam,
• Obaid A. Alharbi,
• Hamad AlMohamadi and
• Abdul Wahab Mohammad

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 264–285, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.21

• effectively promotes the degradation of antibiotics from contaminated water. Researchers have conducted experiments to evaluate the efficacy of various photocatalysts in eliminating different antibiotics from their respective environments. Research on catalyst composition and application has evolved through

• hydrogen electrode (NHE)). In this reductive pathway, the photoexcited electrons have the ability to interact with electron acceptors, like O2, which can be found on the catalyst surface or dissolved in water. This reaction reduces O2, forming a superoxide radical anion (O2•−) (O2 + e− → O2•−) [35][55

• ]. Additionally, H2O2 can be generated by transferring electrons from the conduction band to the adsorbed O2. Because the CB of the catalyst has a higher negative potential than the O2/H2O2 system (+0.682 eV vs NHE), the generated H2O2 subsequently reacts with electrons generated by light to yield active HO

Clays enhanced with niobium: potential in wastewater treatment and reuse as pigment with antibacterial activity

• Silvia Jaerger,
• Patricia Appelt,
• Mario Antônio Alves da Cunha,
• Fabián Ccahuana Ayma,
• Ricardo Schneider,
• Carla Bittencourt and
• Fauze Jacó Anaissi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 141–154, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.13

• +) favoring of the BEOx catalyst hindered its photocatalytic activity [8]. In a study by Asencios et al. (2019) [8], niobium-modified clay was explored for the photocatalysis of rhodamine B dye, yielding removal rates close to 95%. Additionally, Lacerda et al. (2020) [25] achieved up to 90% efficiency in the

Facile synthesis of size-tunable L-carnosine-capped silver nanoparticles and their role in metal ion sensing and catalytic degradation of p-nitrophenol

• Akash Kumar,
• Ridhima Chadha,
• Abhishek Das,
• Nandita Maiti and
• Rayavarapu Raja Gopal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1576–1592, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.124

• +, Pb2+, and Cd2+ was achieved via ʟ-carnosine–metal interaction [20][21]. With this study, an attempt has been made to address the issues associated with traditional environmental monitoring and remediation systems. This article aims to develop a metal ion sensing and catalyst platform with in situ

• -aminophenol (P-AP) in the presence of nanoparticle catalyst and NaBH4. All catalysis experiments were performed at RT in a 3.5 mL quartz cuvette. The reagents were introduced in the sequence of 2 mL P-NP (0.25 mM or 1 mM), 1 mL of NaBH4 (100 mM), and 50 μL of ʟ-carnosine-capped AgNPs (1 ± 0.2 OD). The

• degradation of P-NP and the formation of P-AP were monitored by recording UV–vis spectra in the 300–900 nm range. The disappearance of the yellow color, characteristic of the nitrophenolate ion, was observed upon the addition of the AgNP catalyst, accompanied by a concomitant decrease in the absorbance

Integrating high-performance computing, machine learning, data management workflows, and infrastructures for multiscale simulations and nanomaterials technologies

• Fabio Le Piane,
• Mario Vozza,
• Matteo Baldoni and
• Francesco Mercuri

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1498–1521, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.119

• has emerged as a pivotal catalyst, revolutionizing the infrastructures for data [28]. Cloud technologies represent the most efficient and dynamic means to facilitate the seamless sharing of knowledge across diverse platforms. The inherent scalability, flexibility, and accessibility of cloud-based

Nanoarchitectonics with cetrimonium bromide on metal nanoparticles for linker-free detection of toxic metal ions and catalytic degradation of 4-nitrophenol

• Akash Kumar and
• Raja Gopal Rayavarapu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1312–1332, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.106

Mn-doped ZnO nanopowders prepared by sol–gel and microwave-assisted sol–gel methods and their photocatalytic properties

• Cristina Maria Vlăduț,
• Crina Anastasescu,
• Silviu Preda,
• Oana Catalina Mocioiu,
• Simona Petrescu,
• Jeanina Pandele-Cusu,
• Dana Culita,
• Veronica Bratan,
• Ioan Balint and
• Maria Zaharescu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1283–1296, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.104

• catalyst is generally associated with low photocatalytic activity. Accordingly, various modifiers of semiconductor nanomaterials are used to enhance separation of the photogenerated charges, causing a corresponding decrease of PL emission. The correlation between photoluminescence and photocatalytic

•  10 reveals two significant aspects: (i) The main peak emission for both powders suspended in oxalic acid solutions diminishes. This may be suggestive for the charge carrier type (electrons or holes) acting in the photo-mediated interaction of the surface catalyst with the reactant [53]. (ii) The SG

• sample tends to a complete quenching of the photoluminescence signal with increasing concentrations, while the MW sample exhibits a plateau (Figure 10c). The latter observation can be associated with the adsorption degree of oxalate ions on the catalyst surface. The two abovementioned observations

Enhanced catalytic reduction through in situ synthesized gold nanoparticles embedded in glucosamine/alginate nanocomposites

• Chi-Hien Dang,
• Le-Kim-Thuy Nguyen,
• Minh-Trong Tran,
• Van-Dung Le,
• Nguyen Minh Ty,
• T. Ngoc Han Pham,
• Hieu Vu-Quang,
• Tran Thi Kim Chi,
• Tran Thi Huong Giang,
• Nguyen Thi Thanh Tu and
• Thanh-Danh Nguyen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1227–1237, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.99

• nanocomposite as a versatile catalyst with promising applications across various industrial sectors. Keywords: catalysis; gold nanoparticles; organic dyes; organometallic nanocomposites; reduction; Introduction Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have garnered significant attention because of their exceptional

• mechanism involves the transfer of electrons from BH4− (the electron donor) to the dye (the electron acceptor) facilitated by the surface of the metal nanoparticles [42][43]. Prior to electron transfer, dye and BH4− are adsorbed onto the catalyst surface, as depicted in Figure 5. Consequently, the

• from 2.05 × 10−3 to 4.26 × 10−3 s−1. Notably, the nanocomposite demonstrated excellent recyclability in the reduction of 2-nitrophenol. Consequently, this innovative nanocomposite emerges as a promising catalyst for organic dye reduction, offering considerable potential for diverse industrial

Photocatalytic methane oxidation over a TiO₂/SiNWs p–n junction catalyst at room temperature

• Qui Thanh Hoai Ta,
• Luan Minh Nguyen,
• Ngoc Hoi Nguyen,
• Phan Khanh Thinh Nguyen and
• Dai Hai Nguyen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1132–1141, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.92

• recombination of charge carriers in semiconductors is a main drawback for photocatalytic oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) reactions. Herein, we propose a novel catalyst by developing a p–n junction titania–silicon nanowires (TiO2/SiNWs) heterostructure. The structure is fabricated by atomic layer deposition

• forces generated charge carriers to move in opposite directions and suppresses charge recombination. Besides, surface morphology and optical properties of the the p–n TiO2/SiNWs catalyst are also beneficial for the photocatalytic activity. It is expected that the results of this study will provide

• deposition on catalyst surfaces [4][5][6][7]. Therefore, sustainable strategies for both green conversion and atmospheric removal of CH4 are urgently necessary [8][9][10][11]. Semiconductor-based photocatalysis has been attracting scientists’ attention because of its environmental friendliness and easy

Interface properties of nanostructured carbon-coated biological implants: an overview

• Mattia Bartoli,
• Francesca Cardano,
• Erik Piatti,
• Stefania Lettieri,
• Andrea Fin and
• Alberto Tagliaferro

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1041–1053, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.85

• reactions are those involving the decomposition of precursor in the gas phase forming products that condense on a target. In contrast, heterogeneous reactions are those involving the decomposition of the precursors on the solid surface of a catalyst that also acts as a support. As reported by Porro et al

• ., camphor and cyclohexanol) on various substrates, ranging from uncoated silicon to simple glass, to yield carpets of vertically aligned CNTs. Nevertheless, a purification stage for removing the catalyst is mandatory for avoiding side effects in biological environments [82][83]. The choice of the catalyst

Bolometric IR photoresponse based on a 3D micro-nano integrated CNT architecture

• Yasameen Al-Mafrachi,
• Sandeep Yadav,
• Sascha Preu,
• Jörg J. Schneider and
• Oktay Yilmazoglu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1030–1040, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.84

• optimizing device parameters such as resistance, optical absorption characteristics, and heat conductivity. The M-shape was used to have a homogeneous gas flow parallel to the CNT walls during CNT growth to achieve repeatably aligned walls. Prior to CNT growth, the Fe catalyst layer self-assembled into Fe

• stream of water vapor acted as a catalyst activator. The height of the CNT bundles (30–60 μm) depended on the CVD growth time. CNT bundles with a height of ≈40 μm were grown in ca. 1 min as shown in Figure 2a. The resulting M-shaped VACNTs have an initial pixel dimension of 20 × 20 μm2 with a ≈1 μm thick

• strongly influenced by the size and morphology of the catalyst particles. A correlation between cluster size and diameter of the CNT grown on it was shown in [15]. The effect of the growth temperature on the diameter distribution and chirality of single-walled carbon nanotubes can be found in [16]. A new

Intermixing of MoS₂ and WS₂ photocatalysts toward methylene blue photodegradation

• Maryam Al Qaydi,
• Nitul S. Rajput,
• Michael Lejeune,
• Abdellatif Bouchalkha,
• Mimoun El Marssi,
• Steevy Cordette,
• Chaouki Kasmi and
• Mustapha Jouiad

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 817–829, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.68

• , with over 99% degradation of MB achieved within 60 min under visible light exposure by using 10 mg of the catalyst to degrade 10 mg/L of MB [22]. Other works have shown that the MoS2–ZnO composite achieved 97% of MB photodegradation in ≈30 min under visible irradiation by using 250 mg/L of the catalyst

• to degrade 10 mg/L of MB [23]. Moreover, when MoS2 is mixed with SnO2, the MB photodegradation reaches up to ≈99.5% within 5 min. This rapid degradation occurred when 400 mg/L of the catalyst was used to degrade 3.2 mg/L of MB [24]. These results concerned materials fabricated using the hydrothermal

• technique, involving multiple processing stages. This ends up increasing the overall costs of production and creates a real challenge [25]. One can note the very high amount of catalyst used to degrade a small MB concentration. Besides, other studies have shown that WS2/polypyrrole composites synthesized by

Synthesis of silver–palladium Janus nanoparticles using co-sputtering of independent sources: experimental and theorical study

• Maria J. Martínez-Carreón,
• Francisco Solís-Pomar,
• Abel Fundora,
• Claudio D. Gutiérrez-Lazos,
• Sergio Mejía-Rosales,
• Hector N. Fernández-Escamilla,
• Jonathan Guerrero-Sánchez,
• Manuel F. Meléndrez and
• Eduardo Pérez-Tijerina

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 808–816, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.67

• poisoning, resulting in an increase in the useful life of the catalyst. Chunling An et al. synthesized AgPd BNPs in aqueous solution with sizes from 4 to 5 nm and demonstrated that they exhibit greater electrocatalytic activity and better long-term performance than silver nanoparticles [9]. Janus

Electrospun polysuccinimide scaffolds containing different salts as potential wound dressing material

• Veronika Pálos,
• Krisztina S. Nagy,
• Rita Pázmány,
• Krisztina Juriga-Tóth,
• Bálint Budavári,
• Judit Domokos,
• Dóra Szabó,
• Ákos Zsembery and
• Angela Jedlovszky-Hajdu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 781–796, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.65

• polycondensation in the presence of a phosphoric acid catalyst [2]. Phosphoric acid (20 g) and ʟ-aspartic acid (20 g) were mixed in a round-bottom flask and placed into a rotatory vacuum evaporator (RV10, digital rotary evaporator, IKA, Germany) with a rotation speed of 130 rpm. The temperature was gradually

• pellet was filtered and washed using a vacuum filter to remove the phosphoric acid catalyst and the unreacted ʟ-aspartic acid monomeric molecules. Then, the pellet was mixed in distilled water for 10 min. This step was repeated until the pH of the filtrate changed from acidic to neutral. Finally, the PSI

Elastic modulus of β-Ga₂O₃ nanowires measured by resonance and three-point bending techniques

• Annamarija Trausa,
• Sven Oras,
• Sergei Vlassov,
• Mikk Antsov,
• Tauno Tiirats,
• Andreas Kyritsakis,
• Boris Polyakov and
• Edgars Butanovs

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 704–712, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.58

• , trapezoid, and rectangular shapes (see Figure S1 in Supporting Information File 1). Only part of the NWs had Au catalyst particles at the end of the NW, which is an indication of VLS growth; therefore, suggesting that a large portion of NWs grew via the self-catalytic vapour–solid (VS) mechanism [24

Laser synthesis of nanoparticles in organic solvents – products, reactions, and perspectives

• Theo Fromme,
• Sven Reichenberger,
• Katharine M. Tibbetts and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 638–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.54

• produce graphite structures. The carbon shell is a surface modification and, as such, affects the nanoparticles’ catalyst properties either positively [37][155] or negatively [149]. A low number of graphene layers on the surface of the nanoparticles was found to enhance the catalytic activity during

Exfoliation of titanium nitride using a non-thermal plasma process

• Priscila Jussiane Zambiazi,
• Dolores Ribeiro Ricci Lazar,
• Larissa Otubo,
• Rodrigo Fernando Brambilla de Souza,
• Almir Oliveira Neto and
• Cecilia Chaves Guedes-Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 631–637, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.53

• conductivity [10][11][12]. On the nanoscale, TiN finds applications as additive in titanium alloys, as catalyst support material, as supercapacitor component, and as nanocoating for medical implants [13][14][15][16]. Furthermore, ultra-small TiN nanodots have been successfully obtained through liquid

Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under visible light by cobalt ferrite nanoparticles/graphene quantum dots

• Vo Chau Ngoc Anh,
• Le Thi Thanh Nhi,
• Le Thi Kim Dung,
• Dang Thi Ngoc Hoa,
• Nguyen Truong Son,
• Nguyen Thi Thao Uyen,
• Nguyen Ngoc Uyen Thu,
• Le Van Thanh Son,
• Le Trung Hieu,
• Tran Ngoc Tuyen and
• Dinh Quang Khieu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 475–489, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.43

• degradation of methylene blue (MB) under visible light. The catalyst can be recycled with an external magnetic field and displays suitable stability. Also, it was reused in three successive experiments with a loss of efficiency of about 5%. The CF/GQDs are considered as an efficient photocatalyst for MB

• . Then, the material was separated from the solution, and the MB concentration was determined to evaluate the MB decomposition efficiency. Reusability Reusability and stability of the CoFe2O4/GQDs were assessed in three cycles of 120 min. After each cycle, the catalyst was separated from the MB solution

• CF/GQDs samples as catalysts. The decolourisation occurs in two steps. First, the catalyst was mixed with the MB solution in the dark for 60 min to ensure the adsorption/desorption equilibrium; second, the lamp was turned on to irradiate the MB solution under mechanical stirring. It is found that the

Influence of conductive carbon and MnCo₂O₄ on morphological and electrical properties of hydrogels for electrochemical energy conversion

• Sylwia Pawłowska,
• Karolina Cysewska,
• Yasamin Ziai,
• Jakub Karczewski,
• Piotr Jasiński and
• Sebastian Molin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 57–70, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.6

• catalytic activity of the electrode in the oxygen evolution reaction. The use of a hydrogel as a matrix to suspend the catalyst particles, and thus increase their availability through the electrolyte, seems to be an interesting and promising application approach. Keywords: electrical properties; energy

• the morphology also facilitates the penetration by the electrolyte, the diffusion of ions to electroactive sites, and the rapid release of the reaction, thus promoting the kinetics of the reaction and achieving higher efficiency of the catalyst built into the 3D structure [19]. The hydrogel matrix

• porous structure is capable of swelling and thus accommodating large amounts of ionic liquids. Moreover, the swollen hydrogel structure provides constant access of electrolyte molecules/ions to the catalyst particles, increasing the speed and efficiency of the electrochemical reaction [20]. The swelling