Radiosensitizing properties of dual-functionalized carbon nanostructures loaded with temozolomide

• Radmila Milenkovska,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Petre Makreski,
• Dushko Lukarski,
• Igor Stojkovski,
• Maja Simonoska Crcarevska and
• Kristina Mladenovska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 229–251, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.18

• nm were more toxic than smaller ones for RAW264.7 macrophage cells [83]. It was also shown that long MWCNTs (20 µm) were cytotoxic to macrophages unlike short ones (0.6 µm) [84], that longer ones (825 nm) induced more intensive inflammation than shorter ones (220 nm) [85], and that longer CNTs had

• concentrations. In a study of Wan et al. [88], it was shown that acid-functionalized SWCNTs and GO induced cell death, autophagosomal accumulation, and lysosome damage in the macrophages, but also that GO was more toxic despite the similarity in the chemical structure and surface functional groups, pointing to

Nanocarriers and macrophage interaction: from a potential hurdle to an alternative therapeutic strategy

• Naths Grazia Sukubo,
• Paolo Bigini and
• Annalisa Morelli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 97–118, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.10

• advantages, the interaction with many biological matrices, particularly with existing macrophages, must be considered. In this review, we will explore the dual role of macrophages in NC delivery, highlighting their physiological functions, the challenges posed by the mononuclear phagocyte system, and

• delve into the intriguing potential of nanomedicine in neurology and traumatology, associated with macrophage interaction, and the exciting possibilities it holds for the future. Keywords: drug delivery; macrophages; nanomedicine; polarization; RNA-based therapies; Review 1 Introduction In the vast

• from research to clinical application faces significant hurdles, primarily due to interactions with the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). After administration in host bodies, NCs encounter systems of phagocytic cells, predominantly resident macrophages such as Kupffer cells (KCs) in the liver and

Biomimetic nanocarriers: integrating natural functions for advanced therapeutic applications

• Hugo Felix Perini,
• Beatriz Sodré Matos,
• Carlo José Freire de Oliveira and
• Marcos Vinicius da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1619–1626, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.127

• homotypic behavior of CMC-NPs in delivering active therapeutic agents to specific sites, promoting immune evasion of CD47 cells by blocking binding with SIRP-α, preventing its phosphorylation, and thereby restoring the phagocytosis of cancer cells by macrophages. Additional studies have demonstrated that

• antiviral treatments. Tan et al. (2021) employed lopinavir (LPV), an antiviral drug, in polymeric nanoparticles coated with macrophage membranes (PLGA-LPV@M). This biomimetic nanocarrier demonstrated the ability to inherit the antigenic profile of macrophages, enabling the absorption of pro-inflammatory

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

• Iqra Rahat,
• Pooja Yadav,
• Aditi Singhal,
• Mohammad Fareed,
• Jaganathan Raja Purushothaman,
• Mohammed Aslam,
• Raju Balaji,
• Sonali Patil-Shinde and
• Md. Rizwanullah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1473–1497, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.118

• water/or buffer. Because of the positive charge, the lipids in the inner core encapsulate the drug more efficiently compared to PLHNPs with a polymeric core. In addition, because of the outer lipoidal PEG layer, these nanocarriers escape the uptake by macrophages and enhance the stability of the

• yields a natural vehicle for drug delivery, and these nanocarriers can easily escape the uptake by macrophages. In this system, the drugs are encapsulated in the lipophilic polymeric core, and the lipids in the outer natural membrane enhance the sustained release of drugs. With the development of these

Realizing active targeting in cancer nanomedicine with ultrasmall nanoparticles

• André F. Lima,
• Giselle Z. Justo and
• Alioscka A. Sousa

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1208–1226, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.98

• that of conventional NPs [66]. This reduced accumulation can be attributed to their efficient renal excretion together with the absence of stable interactions with blood proteins, especially those of the innate immune system that can mark NPs for phagocytosis by tissue-resident macrophages. Overall

Recent updates in applications of nanomedicine for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis

• Damai Ria Setyawati,
• Fransiska Christydira Sekaringtyas,
• Riyona Desvy Pratiwi,
• A’liyatur Rosyidah,
• Rohimmahtunnissa Azhar,
• Nunik Gustini,
• Gita Syahputra,
• Idah Rosidah,
• Etik Mardliyati,
• Tarwadi and
• Sjaikhurrizal El Muttaqien

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1105–1116, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.89

• conventional delivery platform to deliver a minimum concentration of these therapeutic molecules into the liver, as well as the lack of specificity. Without any targeting strategy, the potent antifibrotic activity of IFNγ, for example, was offset by its proinflammatory effects on macrophages [20]. Therefore

• , resulting in poor bioavailability. Regarding synthetic substances, Kurniawan and co-workers encapsulated the potent inhibitor R406 to inhibit spleen tyrosine kinase in inflammatory macrophages using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs (R406-PLGA) [45]. PLGA was used as polymeric platform as it is an

• FDA-approved biodegradable polymer. The R406-PLGA NPs (particle size of 159.7 nm) showed a significant downregulation of major inflammatory markers (CCL2, IL-1α, and IL-6) in vitro in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. In an in vivo experiment using a methionine and choline-deficient (MCD) mouse

Interface properties of nanostructured carbon-coated biological implants: an overview

• Mattia Bartoli,
• Francesca Cardano,
• Erik Piatti,
• Stefania Lettieri,
• Andrea Fin and
• Alberto Tagliaferro

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1041–1053, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.85

• onto the surface, forming a matrix composed by platelets and coagulation cascade components. This process triggers the inflammatory response of neutrophils, which attempt to degrade the implant through phagocytosis and the release of reactive oxygen species. Macrophages play a key role changing from

• macrophages. The reduction of fibrotic formations on the implants is of capital relevance for preventing thrombosis [96]. Hassan et al. [97] investigated graphene coatings on a stainless steel implant to minimize the negative effect of metals contained into the alloy (i.e., Cr, Mo, and Ni). The authors used

• . Furthermore, the authors were able to fine-tune the topology of the CNT coating, reducing inflammatory events by down-regulated pro-inflammatory cytokines and macrophages. The coated polymeric nanofibers showed the ability to up-regulate the formation of new blood vessels and osteogenic pathways, proving the

Entry of nanoparticles into cells and tissues: status and challenges

• Kirsten Sandvig,
• Tore Geir Iversen and
• Tore Skotland

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1017–1029, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.83

• (Kupffer cells, i.e., the liver macrophages, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC), and hepatocytes) in NP uptake [81]. A very recent study points to the importance of interactions between PEG-NPs with (apo)lipoproteins and scavenger receptors, and postulates that the high presence of these receptors

• injection in rats [92]. In vivo studies are essential to evaluate the efficacy of drug-loaded NPs since it is not only the tumor cells that are affected by treatment but also the microenvironment in the tumor, for instance the macrophages. We showed some years ago that cabazitaxel-loaded NPs had a good

• therapeutic effect on a human breast cancer xenograft in mice, and discussed if an increased ratio of M1/M2 (anti-tumorigenic/pro-tumorigenic) macrophages was important for the therapeutic effect [93]. We have recently investigated in more detail the changes occurring in tumor-associated myeloid cells in

Electrospun nanofibers: building blocks for the repair of bone tissue

• Tuğrul Mert Serim,
• Gülin Amasya,
• Tuğba Eren-Böncü,
• Ceyda Tuba Şengel-Türk and
• Ayşe Nurten Özdemir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 941–953, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.77

• , the mineralization phase begins, and new bone tissue is formed [9][14]. The main function of osteoclasts, which have properties similar to those of macrophages, is to resorb the mineralized bone matrix [13][18]. Another group of cells derived from osteoblasts are bone-lining cells, which cover the

Cholesterol nanoarchaeosomes for alendronate targeted delivery as an anti-endothelial dysfunction agent

• Horacio Emanuel Jerez,
• Yamila Roxana Simioni,
• Kajal Ghosal,
• Maria Jose Morilla and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 517–534, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.46

• assessed on severely inflamed HUVECs. To that aim, HUVECs were grown on a porous barrier on top of a basal compartment seeded either with macrophages or human foam cells. One lighter and one more pronounced inflammatory context was modelled by adding lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to the apical or the apical and

• therapeutic, diagnostic, or theragnostic applications to pathological macrophages and endothelia is of major pharmaceutical interest [21]. The vascular endothelium can be actively targeted with nanomedicines of high structural sophistication [22][23], which are, however, difficult to fit within the

• simplicity and resistance to mechanical stress. Recently, we have reported the structural characterization and effect on J774A.1 murine macrophages of ALN loaded in nanoarchaeosomes, that is, nanoARC(ALN) and nanoARC-Chol(ALN). Remarkably, these formulations do not seek to modify the solubility of ALN, but

Classification and application of metal-based nanoantioxidants in medicine and healthcare

• Nguyen Nhat Nam,
• Nguyen Khoi Song Tran,
• Tan Tai Nguyen,
• Nguyen Ngoc Trai,
• Nguyen Phuong Thuy,
• Hoang Dang Khoa Do,
• Nhu Hoa Thi Tran and
• Kieu The Loan Trinh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 396–415, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.36

• strategy for treating inflammatory diseases. Recently, Kim et al. introduced ultrasmall antioxidant cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeONPs) with strong SOD and CAT activities, which were used to decrease ROS levels and suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines (TNFα and IL-1β) in macrophages. CeONPs

• macrophages. Moreover, AuNPs with different sizes and shapes exhibit the capability to inhibit angiogenesis, especially at 20 nm size [178][186]. In 2022, García-Rubio and colleagues introduced a novel diagnostic approach to differentiate between normal blood pressure and hypertension. This method involves

Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review

• Maria Jose Morilla,
• Kajal Ghosal and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 333–349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.30

• intracellular amastigotes are usually found in hepatic macrophages. Amastigotes multiply and differentiate into trypomastigotes, which are released back to the blood after cell rupture. The acute phase is followed by an indeterminate, asymptomatic phase. Ten to thirty years after the acute phase, 30%–40% of

• CD are less accessible than in leishmaniasis, where only macrophages are infected. The first report on BNZ-based nanomedicines intravenously administered to rats and mice dates back to 2004 [67] with disappointing results. An intravenous bolus of 0.7% w/w BNZ/lipid multilamellar liposomes

• proteins, and prematurely release their cargos; also, they are phagocytosed by circulating monocytes or tissue macrophages to be degraded. This gives rise to the emergence of new modes of toxicity, including hemolysis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired lysosomal or mitochondrial function. In the

Nanocarrier systems loaded with IR780, iron oxide nanoparticles and chlorambucil for cancer theragnostics

• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan-Thang Cao,
• Vy Tran-Anh and
• Hieu Vu Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 180–189, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.17

• ], mannose for the mannose receptor on activated macrophages [6][7], and folic acid for the overexpression of the folate receptor on the surface of cancer cells and activated macrophages [8]. Thus, in this study, PLGA was chosen for NP formulation since it is a biocompatible and biodegradable material

• their high potential applications in various fields, including theragnostics. The PLGA SPION nanoparticles were modified to carry siRNA for silencing the inflammatory cytokine Cox-2 in activated macrophages and to serve as a tracer for locating activated macrophages in a mouse model of intra-uterine

Curcumin-loaded nanostructured systems for treatment of leishmaniasis: a review

• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar,
• Edijane Matos Sales and
• Fábio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 37–50, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.4

• invertebrate host; (ii) intracellular amastigote, a spherical form that is found in cells of the vertebrate host. Infected sandflies inject blood with the parasite in promastigote form into the vertebrate host, which causes macrophages or other cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system to phagocytose the

• parasite towards a given drug through decreased uptake of the drug by macrophages [55][56][57]. Thus, nanotechnology-based systems are a promising alternative for drug delivery and vectorization in the treatment of leishmaniasis as they present several advantages. One could mention decreased side effects

• , the intracellular uptake of bioactive molecules is especially hindered for hydrophobic molecules [64], making it difficult for the drug to reach the parasite. On the other hand, nanocarriers can target the interior of macrophages residing in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, effectively delivering

Curcumin-loaded albumin submicron particles with potential as a cancer therapy: an in vitro study

• Nittiya Suwannasom,
• Netsai Sriaksorn,
• Chutamas Thepmalee,
• Krissana Khoothiam,
• Ausanai Prapan,
• Hans Bäumler and
• Chonthida Thephinlap

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1127–1140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.93

• together with evasion from recognition by macrophages and the immune system because of the low binding of proteins on the particles’ surface [32]. Representative SEM images of HSA-MPs and CUR-HSA-MPs are displayed in Figure 2C,D. The results reveal that the submicron particles displayed a “hairy” surface

Recognition mechanisms of hemoglobin particles by monocytes – CD163 may just be one

• Jonathan-Gabriel Nimz,
• Pichayut Rerkshanandana,
• Chiraphat Kloypan,
• Ulrich Kalus,
• Saranya Chaiwaree,
• Axel Pruß,
• Radostina Georgieva,
• Yu Xiong and
• Hans Bäumler

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 1028–1040, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.85

• the interaction of liver macrophages with HbMPs have not been systematically investigated yet. Since HbMPs are composed of Hb, the elimination via Hp and Hpx seems likely. Hp binds freed Hb, Hpx binds freed heme. The resulting complexes are then bound by the respective receptors, namely CD163 for Hp

• size or other physical properties of the particles. In this study, we screened several monocytic surface receptors for a possible influence on the uptake of HbMPs by monocytes, which are precursor cells of macrophages. We chose to screen for CD14- as well as CD33-dependent HbMP uptake by monocytes

• after a short while in the MRI scan [24]. While the authors hypothesized that the HBOC was taken up by CD163-expressing Kupffer cells/macrophages, Chow et al. reported that when isolated rat livers were perfused with a HBOC solution, hepatocytes also took up abundant hemin, as determined by heme

Green SPIONs as a novel highly selective treatment for leishmaniasis: an in vitro study against Leishmania amazonensis intracellular amastigotes

• Brunno R. F. Verçoza,
• Robson R. Bernardo,
• Luiz Augusto S. de Oliveira and
• Juliany C. F. Rodrigues

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 893–903, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.73

• using coconut water [9]. In this article, the ability of macrophages to uptake these SPIONs was evaluated, together with some physical and chemical characterizations. The synthesized green SPIONs are around 4 nm in diameter, are composed of pure nonstoichiometric magnetite, exhibit superparamagnetic

• behavior at room temperature, and are taken up by macrophages without being toxic for these mammalian cells [9]. The application of SPIONs in treating leishmaniasis has been studied by different groups over the past few years, showing promising and satisfactory results [10][11][12][13]; thus, using SPIONs

• promastigotes (Figure 1A,B), the SPIONS are distributed throughout the cytosol. In contrast, in the intracellular amastigotes cultivated in macrophages, the SPIONs appear in the mammalian cytosol, inside the parasitophorous vacuole, and in the parasite cytosol (Figure 1C,D). After the first microscopic analysis

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

• Qixiong Lin,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Yanyan Wen,
• Xiaoqiong Li,
• Donglian Du,
• Weibin Dai,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 262–279, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.24

• tumor cells and sends a “do not eat me” signal to phagocytic cells [41]. CD47 has been shown to avoid uptake by macrophages, which enables the NPs to escape immunogenic clearance [42]. Additionally, CD24 has been found to be overexpressed in several malignant diseases (e.g., ovarian and breast cancer

• ). It also counteracts immune clearance by interacting with Ig-like lectin 10 (Siglec-10) expressed by macrophages [43]. Moreover, PD-L1 and B2M play an important role in preventing macrophage phagocytosis [43]. Most of the protein components can be efficiently retained and transferred to NPs during the

• encapsulation of cancer cell membranes (Figure 4A) [31]. With these features, although NPs encapsulated by a cancer cell membrane are foreign substances, they can still escape the surveillance of the body, thereby resisting phagocytosis by macrophages and prolonging the blood circulation time [20]. The

Supramolecular assembly of pentamidine and polymeric cyclodextrin bimetallic core–shell nanoarchitectures

• Alexandru-Milentie Hada,
• Nina Burduja,
• Marco Abbate,
• Claudio Stagno,
• Guy Caljon,
• Louis Maes,
• Nicola Micale,
• Massimiliano Cordaro,
• Angela Scala,
• Antonino Mazzaglia and
• Anna Piperno

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 1361–1369, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.112

• concentration of Pent was 32 μM. Miltefosine was used as a reference drug. Cytotoxicity assays were performed both on primary peritoneal mouse macrophages (PMM) and human fetal lung fibroblasts (MCR-5) according to procedures previously described to assess selectivity [31]. Tamoxifen was employed as the

pH-driven enhancement of anti-tubercular drug loading on iron oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in macrophages

• Karishma Berta Cotta,
• Sarika Mehra and
• Rajdip Bandyopadhyaya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1127–1139, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.84

• . Furthermore, only the former (pH 5 system) exhibited a desirable slower drug release profile, compared to the free drug. NOR-coated IONPs also enable a 22 times higher drug accumulation in macrophages, compared to identical extracellular concentrations of the free drug. Thus, lowering the drug coating pH to 5

• imparts multiple benefits – improved IONP stability, enhanced drug coating, higher drug uptake in macrophages at reduced toxicity and slower drug release. Keywords: drug-nanoparticle interactions; drug uptake; intra-macrophage; iron oxide nanoparticles; norfloxacin; Introduction Nanoparticles have taken

• drug and nanoparticle uptake in macrophage cells in vitro, as macrophages are the primary site of infection for many intracellular pathogens including Mycobacterium [31]. Results and Discussion Iron oxide nanoparticles were successfully synthesized, indicated by the appearance of a black coloration

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

• Sepand Tehrani Fateh,
• Lida Moradi,
• Elmira Kohan,
• Michael R. Hamblin and
• Amin Shiralizadeh Dezfuli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 808–862, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.64

A review on nanostructured silver as a basic ingredient in medicine: physicochemical parameters and characterization

• Gabriel M. Misirli,
• Kishore Sridharan and
• Shirley M. P. Abrantes

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 440–461, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.36

• macrophages to produce activated ISGs and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukins (IL-6, IL-8) [76][115][116][117]. Several studies have shown that AgNPs can act against various types of viruses, viz. human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) [111][118], monkeypox virus (MPV) [112], herpes simplex

• necessary and, in general, it is not a long-lasting protective immunity (immunologic memory). Monocytes and macrophages are the most common phagocytic cells in the body and represent the first innate line of defense, in addition to being responsible for the removal of particles [126]. Carlson et al. and

• Castillo et al. verified the interaction between AgNPs and macrophages and they saw that these NPs remained intact, with no evidence of AgNPs dissolution or cytotoxicity. Once inside the cells, and after 24 h of exposure, the nanoparticles remained at approximately the same size they were before incubation

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

• Nikola Geskovski,
• Nadica Matevska-Geshkovska,
• Simona Dimchevska Sazdovska,
• Marija Glavas Dodov,
• Kristina Mladenovska and
• Katerina Goracinova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 375–401, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.31

• , hematopoietic, which are responsible for the hematopoiesis, and mesenchymal, which produce the stromal, fat, cartilage, and bone tissue. The BM stroma contains fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and endothelial cells. It provides the appropriate microenvironment for efficient

• adsorbs onto the surface of poloxamer 407-coated colloidal particles, thus exhibiting microdomains that are specific for the sinusoidal BM endothelium. Another mechanism of BM targeting is the phagocytosis-mediated uptake from the perisinusoidal macrophages. It is known that the perisinusoidal BM

• macrophages protrude through the vascular endothelial wall to gain access and monitor blood circulation [24]. Hussain et al demonstrated that perisinusoidal macrophages are responsible for the accumulation of the chylomicrons in the BM and, hence, play a crucial role in the delivery of lipids, as a source of

Differences in surface chemistry of iron oxide nanoparticles result in different routes of internalization

• Barbora Svitkova,
• Vlasta Zavisova,
• Veronika Nemethova,
• Martina Koneracka,
• Miroslava Kretova,
• Filip Razga,
• Monika Ursinyova and
• Alena Gabelova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 270–281, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.22

• occurs primarily in specialized cells, such as macrophages or monocytes, other endocytic pathways occur in virtually all cells [8]. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the predominant endocytosis pathway and is involved mainly in nutrient intake and intracellular communication [9][10]. CME is

• involved in PC formation. Hence, coating of MNPs with BSA can be considered as a PC per se. As a dysopsonin protein, albumin promotes a prolonged blood circulation time through blocking the recognition by macrophages [42]. A comprehensive characterization of nanoparticles in biological fluids is, therefore

• inhibition of de novo synthesis [52]. While both F and N blocked the internalization of cholera toxin (ChT) into A549 cells, no effect of MBCD on ChT uptake was observed. Similar results were obtained in J774A.1 macrophages [48]. In contrast, Rothen-Rutishauser et al. [50] did not find any inhibition of ChT

Effect of different silica coatings on the toxicity of upconversion nanoparticles on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

• Cynthia Kembuan,
• Helena Oliveira and
• Christina Graf

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 35–48, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.3

• cytometry measurements performed on macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells) indicate that cells treated with amino-functionalized particles with a thicker silica shell have a higher viability than those incubated with UCNPs with a thinner silica shell, even if more particles with a thicker shell are taken up. This

• the macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. RAW 264.7 cells are particularly sensitive to the treatment with nanoparticles [42][43][44]. They are an established model of activated macrophages and they actively take up nanomaterials from biological media. This way, RAW264.7 cells mimic the behavior of

• macrophages and other immune cells, which eliminate foreign substances from the organism. Moreover, they have already been applied in studies involving uncoated NaGdF4 [42] and silica particles [43][44][45][46]. Upconversion cores consisting of NaYF4 doped with 18% Yb and 2% Er were synthesized. Microporous