Transient electronics for sustainability: Emerging technologies and future directions

• Jae-Young Bae,
• Myung-Kyun Choi and
• Seung-Kyun Kang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1545–1556, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.109

• bioresorbable electronic platforms [52]. However, the available range of bioresorbable metals remains limited. Mg and Zn exhibit rapid degradation under physiological conditions, with rates reaching approximately 1.2–12 µm/day (Mg; pH 7.4 simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C) [54][55][56][57] and 3.5 µm/day (Zn

• electronics. Active degradation has emerged as a complementary strategy alongside conventional encapsulation. Unlike passive and time-dependent degradation, active degradation involves materials that remain stable under normal physiological conditions but are designed to break down in response to specific

• integrating embedded logic circuits, multimodal sensors, and memory components, future systems could continuously monitor physiological conditions, initiate therapeutic interventions when necessary, and ultimately trigger complete biodegradation upon task completion. Realizing this vision will require the

Cross-reactivities in conjugation reactions involving iron oxide nanoparticles

• Shoronia N. Cross,
• Katalin V. Korpany,
• Hanine Zakaria and
• Amy Szuchmacher Blum

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1504–1521, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.106

• thermodynamic driving force, use simple reaction conditions, produce no interfering byproducts, produce products that are stable under physiological conditions, and can be purified easily using non-chromatographic means. The copper-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction is one of the most

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• water solubility, low stability in aqueous solutions under physiological conditions, and unfavorable metabolic or biodistribution profiles. To address these limitations and enhance the delivery of Ru metalloantibiotics to the infection site, several nano-based strategies were developed [126]. For

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• PEG can sometimes limit the targetability of liposomes [114]. Another innovation is the development of stimuli-responsive liposomes, which release their payload in response to triggers like pH, temperature, or enzymatic activity. Stimuli-responsive technology, based on specific physiological

• conditions found in tumors compared to healthy tissue, aids in the spatiotemporal release of cargo. For example, pH-sensitive liposomes use the acidic tumor microenvironment to achieve targeted drug release, reducing systemic toxicity and enhancing therapeutic impact [134][135]. According to recent studies

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• delivery in tumour therapy. Poly(ʟ-glutamic acid). Poly(ʟ-glutamic acid) (PLG) is a biodegradable, water-soluble synthetic polymer composed of repeating units of the amino acid ʟ-glutamic acid. Owing to the presence of the carboxyl side chains, PLG is anionic under physiological conditions (pH ≈ 7.4). This

• G3139 to acute myeloid leukemic cells [113]. Agarose gel electrophoresis retardation essays revealed that both PEI and transferrin were critical to achieve nanocomplexes with long-term stability and optimal cargo protection under physiological conditions. Moreover, LPNs exhibited enhanced cellular

• apoptosis rates in human cancer cell lines [134]. Klajnert and coworkers further explored the ability of Mal and Mal-III-modified PPI G4 dendrimers to protect anti-HIV ASOs from nucleolytic degradation under physiological conditions (Figure 9) [135]. Similarly, Maly et al. investigated the self-assembly

Mechanistic insights into endosomal escape by sodium oleate-modified liposomes

• Ebrahim Sadaqa,
• Satrialdi,
• Fransiska Kurniawan and
• Diky Mudhakir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1667–1685, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.131

• ionizable lipids or pH-sensitive polymers, have also been investigated. While promising, these methods face significant hurdles, including toxicity, instability under physiological conditions, reduced drug loading capacity, and complex synthesis processes that hinder widespread adoption [7][8]. Given the

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

• Iqra Rahat,
• Pooja Yadav,
• Aditi Singhal,
• Mohammad Fareed,
• Jaganathan Raja Purushothaman,
• Mohammed Aslam,
• Raju Balaji,
• Sonali Patil-Shinde and
• Md. Rizwanullah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1473–1497, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.118

• wide range of therapeutic properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. However, their clinical application is often hindered by poor water solubility, low bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and instability under physiological conditions. Polymer lipid

• , rapid metabolism, and instability under physiological conditions [9][10][11]. These challenges necessitate the development of advanced delivery systems to harness the full potential of phytochemicals in therapeutic applications. Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNPs) represent an innovative class

• physiological conditions, such as varying pH levels, temperature, and enzymatic activity. Degradation reduces the effective concentration of the phytochemical, diminishing its therapeutic potential [28][29]. Rapid metabolism and clearance further complicate phytochemical delivery. Phytochemicals are often

Entry of nanoparticles into cells and tissues: status and challenges

• Kirsten Sandvig,
• Tore Geir Iversen and
• Tore Skotland

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1017–1029, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.83

• modify the NP synthesis, and which drugs to use to maximize the possibilities for successful use in nanomedicine. How stable should the NPs be under different physiological conditions to reach their target and then exert their action? To which extent can we make particles that both stimulate immune

Electrospun polysuccinimide scaffolds containing different salts as potential wound dressing material

• Veronika Pálos,
• Krisztina S. Nagy,
• Rita Pázmány,
• Krisztina Juriga-Tóth,
• Bálint Budavári,
• Judit Domokos,
• Dóra Szabó,
• Ákos Zsembery and
• Angela Jedlovszky-Hajdu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 781–796, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.65

• ], biocompatible, and biodegradable polymer. Based on the literature, it is extensively researched for biomedical applications [21][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. It is also known that PSI turns into polyaspartic acid (PASP) at physiological conditions, which is a degradable biomaterial [24][25][36

Radiofrequency enhances drug release from responsive nanoflowers for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

• Yanyan Wen,
• Ningning Song,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Weiwei Wu,
• Qixiong Lin,
• Minjie Cui,
• Rongrong Li,
• Qiufeng Yu,
• Sixue Wu,
• Yongkang Liang,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 569–579, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.49

• and coassembled with a CUR layer on their surface. Then, CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs were obtained by further modification with MnO2 and polyethylene glycol (PEG), which increased the stability and dispersion of the CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs (Figure 1). MnO2 is difficult to degrade under physiological conditions in vivo

• of the CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs were 57% and 70%, respectively. The drug release curves showed similar trends under different environmental conditions (Figure 4c,d). At pH 7.4, only 9% of CUR was released from the CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs, indicating that CUR release is lower under physiological conditions. However

Overview of mechanism and consequences of endothelial leakiness caused by metal and polymeric nanoparticles

• Magdalena Lasak and
• Karol Ciepluch

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 329–338, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.28

• nutrient molecules to NPs could change the toxicity of NPs (NP protein corona), and the physiological conditions, such as blood flow and physiological stretch, will also play a role [37][38][39]. NanoEL mechanism Adherens junctions between endothelial cells are maintained by a complex set of proteins

Facile preparation of Au- and BODIPY-grafted lipid nanoparticles for synergized photothermal therapy

• Yuran Wang,
• Xudong Li,
• Haijun Chen and
• Yu Gao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 1432–1444, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.118

• were no significant change in particle size. The particle size of AB-LNPs was still less than 100 nm after 7 days, indicating that AB-LNPs are stable under physiological conditions (Figure 3a). But the particle size increased obviously when AB-LNPs were dispersed in PBS. The salt ions may affect the

• efficiency (Figure 1). AB-LNPs also showed good stability under physiological conditions and demonstrated laser-responsive release characteristics (Figure 3). BDP grafted on the AB-LNPs could generate greatly enhanced cellular uptake in cancer cells (Figure 4). Due to the enhanced permeability and retention

Microneedle-based ocular drug delivery systems – recent advances and challenges

• Piotr Gadziński,
• Anna Froelich,
• Monika Wojtyłko,
• Antoni Białek,
• Julia Krysztofiak and
• Tomasz Osmałek

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 1167–1184, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.98

• swelling upon the contact with the fluid at the administration site. It is noteworthy that the polymer matrix does not dissolve under physiological conditions and can be removed after the drug is released [117][144]. As the microneedles absorb interstitial fluid from the surrounding tissue, they can be

• ability to overcome the external barriers of the human body decreasing the effectiveness of topical formulations, and minimal invasiveness. Ocular drug administration is usually associated with many challenges; poor bioavailability is among the most important ones [188]. Specific physiological conditions

Gelatin nanoparticles with tunable mechanical properties: effect of crosslinking time and loading

• Agnes-Valencia Weiss,
• Daniel Schorr,
• Julia K. Metz,
• Metin Yildirim,
• Saeed Ahmad Khan and
• Marc Schneider

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 778–787, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.68

• studies dealing with mechanical properties of nanoparticulate drug carriers determines the elasticity of bulk film material instead of that of the particles themselves [3]. Lack of appropriate equipment and training for measurements under physiological conditions might be the reasons. Alsharif et al

Coordination-assembled myricetin nanoarchitectonics for sustainably scavenging free radicals

• Xiaoyan Ma,
• Haoning Gong,
• Kenji Ogino,
• Xuehai Yan and
• Ruirui Xing

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 284–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.23

• strongest noncovalent interaction [4]. Hence, this interaction assured the stability of assembled nanoparticles in physiological conditions. Evaluation of ROS scavenging activity Myr possesses excellent antioxidant activity to scavenge ROS, which has impact on chelate metal ions such as Fe2+ and Cu2

Engineered titania nanomaterials in advanced clinical applications

• Padmavati Sahare,
• Paulina Govea Alvarez,
• Juan Manual Sanchez Yanez,
• Gabriel Luna-Bárcenas,
• Samik Chakraborty,
• Sujay Paul and
• Miriam Estevez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 201–218, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.15

• . synthesized B-TiO2−x nps by a facile aluminium reduction process and modified its surface with PEG molecules (Figure 7) for high stability under physiological conditions. B-TiO2−x-PEG accumulates in tumor tissue via typical endocytosis processes and functions as nanosonosensitizer as well as photothermal

Alteration of nanomechanical properties of pancreatic cancer cells through anticancer drug treatment revealed by atomic force microscopy

• Xiaoteng Liang,
• Shuai Liu,
• Xiuchao Wang,
• Dan Xia and
• Qiang Li

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1372–1379, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.101

• under (almost) physiological conditions in situ. It offers nanoscale force sensitivity, the ability to work in liquid phases, and requires no staining [12][13][14]. With the development of AFM, researchers have been able to conduct extensive research on biological issues through imaging the

Self-assembly of amino acids toward functional biomaterials

• Huan Ren,
• Lifang Wu,
• Lina Tan,
• Yanni Bao,
• Yuchen Ma,
• Yong Jin and
• Qianli Zou

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1140–1150, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.85

• metal nanoparticles under physiological conditions and the abrupt responsive release upon pH and glutathione changes. The half-life of Ce6 in Fmoc-H/Zn2+/Ce6 (8.71 h) and Z-HF/Zn2+/Ce6 (6.33 h) was much longer than that of unencapsulated Ce6 (3.69 h), according to the fitting results of the

• inherent disadvantages of PS, such as hydrophobicity and easy aggregation under physiological conditions, reduce its therapeutic efficiency [77]. Using nanotechnology to encapsulate PS in nanoparticles can effectively solve this problem, improve the bioavailability of PS, and achieve targeted delivery of

• nanoparticles (PWG) capable of spontaneous assembly under physiological conditions. Interestingly, since glycine provides carboxyl groups and is acid-sensitive, when the nanoparticles reach the tumor site, the acidity increases and the protonation of PWG promotes the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

• Sepand Tehrani Fateh,
• Lida Moradi,
• Elmira Kohan,
• Michael R. Hamblin and
• Amin Shiralizadeh Dezfuli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 808–862, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.64

Differences in surface chemistry of iron oxide nanoparticles result in different routes of internalization

• Barbora Svitkova,
• Vlasta Zavisova,
• Veronika Nemethova,
• Martina Koneracka,
• Miroslava Kretova,
• Filip Razga,
• Monika Ursinyova and
• Alena Gabelova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 270–281, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.22

• of CME under different physiological conditions is poorly understood and other studies are required to bridge this gap in our knowledge. Conclusion MNPs coated with bovine serum albumin (BSA-SO-MNPs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG-SO-MNPs), were found to enter the cells by different routes of

Cardiomyocyte uptake mechanism of a hydroxyapatite nanoparticle mediated gene delivery system

• Hiroaki Komuro,
• Masahiro Yamazoe,
• Kosuke Nozaki,
• Akiko Nagai and
• Tetsuo Sasano

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1685–1692, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.150

• dose-dependent manner. The amount of 0.75 µg was selected for subsequent cell experiments. The transfection efficiency of the HAp vector in HL-1 cells was three times higher than that of the endothelial cells in our previous study [22]. Endocytic pathway Under physiological conditions, nanoparticles

Transient coating of γ-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles with glutamate for its delivery to and removal from brain nerve terminals

• Konstantin Paliienko,
• Artem Pastukhov,
• Michal Babič,
• Daniel Horák,
• Olga Vasylchenko and
• Tatiana Borisova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1381–1393, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.122

• brain function in a majority of its aspects involves glutamate signaling. The extracellular glutamate level is low between episodes of exocytotic release under normal physiological conditions, thereby preventing continual activation of glutamate receptors and protecting neurons from excitotoxic injury

• [1]. Each synapse presumably has a definite individual glutamate concentration in the synaptic cleft, which varies between 1 and 20 µM under normal physiological conditions depending on the method of measurements [1][2]. Glutamate uptake by the neurons and glial cells via high-affinity plasma

Multilayer capsules made of weak polyelectrolytes: a review on the preparation, functionalization and applications in drug delivery

• Varsha Sharma and
• Anandhakumar Sundaramurthy

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 508–532, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.41

• also been seen in natural biopolymers such as polypeptides, polynucleotides, lipids and polysaccharides as they are biodegradable under common physiological conditions via enzymatic and pH induced degradation [8]. The advantage of LbL-assembled capsules lies in the versatility of interactions (e.g

• lead to the problem of fouling in biological systems and decreased efficiency. Hydrogen bonding Hydrogen bonding can be used with uncharged polymers for the capsule assembly to make it responsive towards stimuli relevant to physiological conditions. The working pH range of the capsule is based on the

Preparation and in vivo evaluation of glyco-gold nanoparticles carrying synthetic mycobacterial hexaarabinofuranoside

• Gennady L. Burygin,
• Polina I. Abronina,
• Nikita M. Podvalnyy,
• Sergey A. Staroverov,
• Leonid O. Kononov and
• Lev A. Dykman

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 480–493, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.39

• of the spacers in glycosides 1 and 2 were also expected to affect the stability of the formed Ara6-GNPs 3 and 4. Stability of glyco-GNPs Gold hydrosols are typical lyophobic colloids that are stable only under conditions of low ionic strength. Under physiological conditions, GNPs are

Interactions at the cell membrane and pathways of internalization of nano-sized materials for nanomedicine

• Valentina Francia,
• Daphne Montizaan and
• Anna Salvati

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 338–353, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.25

• proteins are instead overexpressed, in order to eventually detect an increase in nanoparticle uptake [17]. Nevertheless, also these methods might lead to artefacts, since the overexpression might induce the activation of a pathway that may not be active under physiological conditions [22][214]. Furthermore