Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• chemical potential with 2D materials determines the defect concentration. Ideally, in situ measurements of defects are employed, but given the challenging atmosphere this may require optical methods, which may not have the required sensitivity to small defect concentrations. Ex situ microscopy measurements

• can these limitations be addressed? X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a powerful tool for identifying and quantifying defects in 2D materials, offering unique advantages in surface sensitivity, chemical state analysis, and real-time monitoring of defect evolution. While challenges such as

• surface contamination, depth sensitivity, energy resolution, and data complexity exist, they can be addressed through careful sample preparation, the use of complementary techniques, and the integration of theoretical modelling for data analysis. The ability of XPS to study defect evolution under specific

Ferroelectric nanodot reservoir for neuromorphic computing

• Anna Razumnaya,
• Yuri Tikhonov,
• Dmitrii Naidenko,
• Léo Boron,
• Valerii Vinokur and
• Igor Lukyanchuk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 352–364, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.24

• changes in the input sequence (field trajectory) can cause large and qualitatively different polarization responses. This sensitivity enables powerful separation of input classes in the reservoir state space. (ii) Short-term memory. The system retains a history of past field variations through its current

Calculation of the dynamic stiffness of a cantilever under torsional oscillation

• Keita Nishida,
• Yuuki Yasui and
• Yoshiaki Sugimoto

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 303–308, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.21

• with small stiffness and provides exceptional sensitivity to conservative and dissipative forces owing to the small stiffness [2][9][10][11]. Non-contact friction measurements with pendulum AFM on a Nb film across the superconducting transition indicate that friction is electronic in the metallic state

Advancing nanolithography: a comprehensive review of materials for local anodic oxidation with AFM

• Matteo Lorenzoni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 275–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.19

• . It is worth highlighting that FEL serves as an alternative to EBL, particularly excelling in low-sensitivity EBL resists. However, FEL has yet to achieve the capability of locally etching or removing a target substrate, as demonstrated by EFLAO. Additionally, most successful FEL patterning

• such pattering capabilities is reported in Figure 6 showing a 35 nm constriction fabricated on few-layer WSe2, before and after etching in water. Additionally, the environmental sensitivity of TMDs, such as the anisotropic oxidation of 1T′ MoTe2 under humid conditions, has been exploited to achieve

• biocompatible surfaces. Despite challenges like tip wear and environmental sensitivity, innovations such as electrode-free local anodic oxidation are extending the potential of LAO toward scalable and industrially viable solutions. By addressing these challenges and leveraging its strengths, LAO could

Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging of contaminant species in chemical vapour deposited graphene on copper

• Barry Brennan,
• Vlad-Petru Veigang-Radulescu,
• Philipp Braeuninger-Weimer,
• Stephan Hofmann and
• Andrew J. Pollard

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 200–213, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.13

• Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FA, United Kingdom 10.3762/bjnano.17.13 Abstract Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was used to probe the chemistry of graphene grown on copper foil substrates by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) under various growth conditions. The surface sensitivity, mass

• characterisation techniques with the ability to distinguish different chemical species present, combined with surface sensitivity and suitably high spatial resolution. We here focus on time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) imaging of Cu-catalysed graphene CVD samples. ToF-SIMS offers high

• surface sensitivity (<1 nm depth), low detection limits (ppm and better), high mass resolution to aid identification of chemical species in both molecular and elemental forms [28][29][34], combined with below 30 nm lateral resolution possible under optimal conditions [35]. We investigate a range of

Structure-dependent thermochromism of PAZO thin films: theory and experiment

• Georgi Mateev,
• Dean Dimov,
• Nataliya Berberova-Buhova,
• Nikoleta Kircheva,
• Todor Dudev,
• Ludmila Nikolova,
• Elena Stoykova,
• Keehoon Hong,
• Dimana Nazarova,
• Silvia Angelova and
• Lian Nedelchev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 186–199, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.12

• illumination, S- and P-polarized absorption spectra were recorded for each case. The results, presented in Figure 4A–D, reveal the polarization sensitivity of the samples under four distinct experimental conditions. As it can be seen, substantial spectral change in P and S spectra are observed for the sample

• govern thermochromism and polarization sensitivity in azopolymer thin films. These findings advance the rational design of thermally and optically responsive materials with promising potential in photonics and optoelectronics. Experimental and Computational Details All thin films used in this study were

Influence of surface characteristics on the in vitro stability and cell uptake of nanoliposomes for brain delivery

• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Andreas Zimmer,
• Otmar Geiss,
• Sabrina Gioria,
• Diletta Scaccabarozzi and
• Marija Glavas Dodov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 139–158, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.9

• nanoliposomal surface Protein electrophoresis was performed by a 2100 Bioanalyzer using High Sensitivity Protein 250 kit assays in reducing condition according to the instruction from the manufacturer. Briefly, samples were prepared as for the AF4 analysis. At the end of the incubation time, samples were

• sensitivity of the bioanalyzer is high and it covers a wide range of concentrations, the results obtained for this formulation may be due to problems with denaturation of proteins present in the formed PC, as well as the manipulation and processing of the sample. Namely, false negatives might arise because

Capabilities of the 3D-MLSI software tool in superconducting neuron design

• Irina E. Tarasova,
• Nikita S. Shuravin,
• Liubov N. Karelina,
• Fedor A. Razorenov,
• Evgeny N. Zhardetsky,
• Aleksandr S. Ionin,
• Mikhail M. Khapaev and
• Vitaly V. Bol’ginov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 122–138, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.8

• describe the parasitic screen-mediated interaction between the control line and readout SQUID of experimental neurons. These points lie above the 6% divergence angle, indicating that actual Msq values are substantially smaller than the calculated ones. This is explained by the high sensitivity of Msq to

• one. Indeed, the actual values of these inductances are extremely small (about 2–5 fH) and correspond to the limit of sensitivity of our experimental technique. Therefore, the relative error of such measurements is too high and any conclusion would not be reliable enough. Extraction Details The

• further improvement. By now, an increase in sensitivity to the input signal and in efficiency of the output flux transfer, as well as a suppression of parasitic coupling, seems to be the most promising strategy. The potential of 3D-MLSI software demonstrated in this work will be useful in this process

Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

• using Paraloid® B72 solutions with 1–4% silica dioxide nanoparticles to enhance durability and reduce moisture sensitivity (mostly to face the biotic and abiotic factors that usually lead to wood damage). The treatment improved dimensional stability, hydrophobicity, and resistance to artificial

Quantitative estimation of nanoparticle/substrate adhesion by atomic force microscopy

• Aydan Çiçek,
• Markus Kratzer,
• Christian Teichert and
• Christian Mitterer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 1–14, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.1

• ascending order. In the end, a series of friction loops needs to be measured for each applied tip load to calculate friction coefficients and, consequently, the lateral force calibration factor. This factor depends on the lateral sensitivity of the position-sensitive photodetector (PSPD), which gauges

• cantilever deflection as well as torsional spring constant [39]. However, errors can arise due to the sensitivity of the PSPD to laser alignment and a few micrometers offset from the tip shear center, leading to erroneous determination of the cantilever torsion loop offset. As a result, there is very low

• . The sensitivity of both calibration methods is restricted by the radius of curvature of the tip, necessitating very sharp tips for the required high accuracy [20]. In this study, we calibrated the lateral force of the cantilever using either the wedge or the D-LFC method, based on the specific

Internal 3D temperature mapping in biological systems using ratiometric light-sheet imaging and lipid-coated upconversion nanothermometers

• Dannareli Barron-Ortiz,
• Enric Pérez-Parets,
• Rubén D. Cadena-Nava,
• Emilio J. Gualda,
• Jacob Licea-Rodríguez,
• Juan Hernández-Cordero,
• Pablo Loza-Álvarez and
• Israel Rocha-Mendoza

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2306–2316, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.159

• -sheet microscopy; temperature mapping; upconversion fluorescent nanoparticles; Introduction Biological processes involving energy exchange often manifest as temperature fluctuations. Materials sought to measure such changes should exhibit high sensitivity, accuracy, high spatiotemporal resolution, good

• devices with several disadvantages, including limited sensitivity and low accuracy, and are generally restricted to contact surface measurements [2]. Beyond fundamental processes, temperature also serves as a key biomarker for pathological conditions such as cancer. Localized hyperthermia often arises

• degeneracy of the coupled energy levels, emission frequencies, and spontaneous radiation transition rates [43]. The FIR-based technique has been widely used for optical thermometry given its inherent advantages, including noise cancellation capabilities, real-time temperature sensing, and high sensitivity

Visualizing nanostructures in supramolecular hydrogels: a correlative study using confocal and cryogenic scanning electron microscopy

• Shaun M. Smith,
• Ferdinando Malagreca,
• Jacqueline Hicks,
• Giuseppe Mantovani,
• David B. Amabilino,
• Christopher Parmenter and
• Lluïsa Pérez-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2274–2284, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.156

• poor sensitivity limited the extent to which CLSM could be reliably used to extract morphological information from ZnPc-containing gels, and no subtle features such as fibre curvature or bundling could be discerned with confidence. Conversely, cryo-SEM imaging of ZnPc@Gel enabled a more comprehensive

Chiral plasmonic nanostructures fabricated with circularly polarized light

• Tian Qiao and
• Ming Lee Tang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2245–2264, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.154

• alone cannot explain the over six orders of magnitude enhancement [53] in sensitivity observed when detecting chiral molecules. Research has shown that the Coulomb interaction between PNSs and molecules induces CD on achiral PNSs or achiral molecules when the other component is chiral [18][153][154][155

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

• sensitivity, specificity, rapid detection, and the ability for real-time analysis. CD- and QD-based biosensors with excellent optical properties such as photoluminescence enable the detection of VB12 at negligible concentrations and in real-world samples with complex matrices. Furthermore, integrating these

• gained popularity for their enhanced sensitivity and specificity [26]. Currently, automated enzyme immunoassays, GC-MS, LC-MS, and HPLC with either fluorescent or electrochemical detection are utilized to assess the total HCY level [26][71][74]. Optical biosensing techniques of vitamin B12 RNA aptamer

• the indicator, and the CL light emission as the signal. Linear range, LOD, RSD, and RR were 5 pg/mL, 10 pg/mL to 1.0 μg/mL, 0.30–1.09%, and 97.0–99.2%, respectively. The developed approach suggested remarkable benefits, including simplicity, lower reagent use, improved sensitivity and analytical

Electromagnetic study of a split-ring resonator metamaterial with cold-electron bolometers

• Ekaterina A. Matrozova,
• Alexander V. Chiginev,
• Leonid S. Revin and
• Andrey L. Pankratov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2199–2206, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.152

• thickness (or by stacking and bonding multiple thinner substrates), or by employing a lens with a pedestal structure. Discussion Solving the problem of broadband high-sensitivity reception for terahertz applications naturally entails comparing the metamaterial-based approach presented here with traditional

• constructing ultrabroadband, high-sensitivity receivers essential for next-generation spectroscopic and radioastronomical applications, particularly in demanding space and balloon-borne environments. One more important potential application for such broadband receiving system is the use for axion search

Microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes: assessment, risks, and sustainable remediation strategies

• Sameeksha Rawat,
• S. M. Tauseef and
• Madhuben Sharma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2144–2167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.148

• ]. Himalayan alpine lakes are environmentally sensitive because of their glacial origin, steep altitude gradients, and high hydrological sensitivity to rapid climate change [16][17]. It is important to know the distinct environmental characteristics and sensitivities of Himalayan alpine lakes to place the

Multifrequency AFM integrating PeakForce tapping and higher eigenmodes for heterogeneous surface characterization

• Yanping Wei,
• Jiafeng Shen,
• Yirong Yao,
• Xuke Li,
• Ming Li and
• Peiling Ke

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2077–2085, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.142

• overcome these challenges. This configuration harnesses the mechanical precision of quasi-static force control and the sensitivity of eigenmode signals to variations in surface properties and enables simultaneous topographical, mechanical, and compositional mapping. We apply this technique to

• calibration procedures Two distinct types of AFM probes were used to validate the universality of the method, namely, a soft probe (ScanAsyst-Air) and a stiff probe (NSC15/Al BS). The key calibrated parameters for each probe are summarized in Table 1. Calibration of optical lever sensitivity and spring

• constant The inverse optical lever sensitivity (InvOLS) and the spring constant (k) of each cantilever were calibrated following a standard procedure, which is built into the Bruker Nanoscope software. Briefly, InvOLS (in nm·V−1) was determined by averaging the slope of the constant compliance region from

Beyond the shell: exploring polymer–lipid interfaces in core–shell nanofibers to carry hyaluronic acid and β-caryophyllene

• Aline Tavares da Silva Barreto,
• Francisco Alexandrino-Júnior,
• Bráulio Soares Arcanjo,
• Paulo Henrique de Souza Picciani and
• Kattya Gyselle de Holanda e Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2015–2033, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.139

• impregnated with HA and βCp nanoemulsion. The use of βCp in practice is questioned due to its low aqueous solubility, low viscosity, extreme volatility, and sensitivity to temperature, oxygen, and light [38]. The production of a nanoemulsion was developed as a nanocarrier system designed to enhance both the

Laser ablation in liquids for shape-tailored synthesis of nanomaterials: status and challenges

• Natalie Tarasenka

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1963–1997, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.137

• enlarged aggregates were observed. The changes in the structure were observed even at slightly elevated temperatures (35 °C), which indicates high sensitivity of the growth mechanisms to temperature increase. A similar effect has been shown by Haram et al. in [47], who observed formation of Ag and Au

Mechanical property measurements enabled by short-term Fourier-transform of atomic force microscopy thermal deflection analysis

• Thomas Mathias,
• Roland Bennewitz and
• Philip Egberts

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1952–1962, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.136

• used in this study [25]. We take the Sader spring constant, which has been widely used in other studies and is less sensitive to variations in the calculated cantilever sensitivity [25], as the spring constant of all cantilevers in the calculations in subsequent sections of this manuscript. Figure 2d

Evaluating metal-organic precursors for focused ion beam-induced deposition through solid-layer decomposition analysis

• Benedykt R. Jany,
• Katarzyna Madajska,
• Aleksandra Butrymowicz-Kubiak,
• Franciszek Krok and
• Iwona B. Szymańska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1942–1951, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.135

• of preliminary tests to confirm volatility and sensitivity to secondary electrons. Refining the conditions for efficient precursor delivery via the GIS system and its subsequent decomposition under ion beam influence requires testing in a difficult-to-access experimental reactor. Given the time- and

Quantum circuits with SINIS structures

• Mikhail Tarasov,
• Mikhail Fominskii,
• Aleksandra Gunbina,
• Artem Krasilnikov,
• Maria Mansfeld,
• Dmitrii Kukushkin,
• Andrei Maruhno,
• Valeria Ievleva,
• Mikhail Strelkov,
• Daniil Zhogov,
• Konstantin Arutyunov,
• Vyacheslav Vdovin,
• Vladislav Stolyarov and
• Valerian Edelman

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1931–1941, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.134

• with selective etching of superconducting and normal metal electrodes. Improvement in ultimate sensitivity is achieved by suspending the absorber above the substrate. Best responsivity of up to 30 electrons per photon at a frequency of 350 GHz, or 72000 A/W, and voltage responsivity up to 3.9 × 109 V/W

• junction; superconducting tunnel junctions; Introduction Modern superconducting electronics is moving towards lower temperatures, lower noise levels, and higher sensitivity, which can be achieved at sub-Kelvin temperatures using aluminum-based tunnel junctions. One group of devices, such as

• in sorption 3He cryostat at 0.33 K, Figure 2b. The relatively low value of the resistance ratio (Rd/Rn – dynamic resistance/normal resistance) is associated with the high sensitivity of the interferometer to external noise. NIS thermometers The I–V characteristic and dynamic resistance of the NIS

PEGylated lipids in lipid nanoparticle delivery dynamics and therapeutic innovation

• Peiyang Gao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1914–1930, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.133

• ]. Some PEG lipids exhibit sensitivity in encapsulation efficiency at higher PEG molar fraction, while others can maintain stable payload encapsulation regardless of PEG density. Likewise, changes in size distribution and surface charge can be modest or pronounced depending on the specific PEG lipid

Programmable soliton dynamics in all-Josephson-junction logic cells and networks

• Vsevolod I. Ruzhickiy,
• Anastasia A. Maksimovskaya,
• Sergey V. Bakurskiy,
• Andrey E. Schegolev,
• Maxim V. Tereshonok,
• Mikhail Yu. Kupriyanov,
• Nikolay V. Klenov and
• Igor I. Soloviev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1883–1893, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.131

• motion is interrupted, for example, by a structural inhomogeneity in a transmission line. Traditionally, this sensitivity to structural inhomogeneities has been viewed as a challenge for robust circuit design. In this work, we propose to exploit the sensitivity mentioned above. We base our proposal on