Green synthesis of biomass-derived carbon quantum dots for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue

• Dalia Chávez-García,
• Mario Guzman,
• Viridiana Sanchez and
• Rubén D. Cadena-Nava

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 755–766, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.63

• from 450 to 4000 cm−1. The size distribution of the synthesized CQDs was determined via DLS, which relies on the measurement of the hydrodynamic radius of the particles. The CQDs were analyzed via a Malvern NanoSizer ZP instrument. The samples were diluted in deionized water to prevent signal

• (Figure 1a). Samples M1 and M5 exhibit a barely noticeable band between 250 and 300 nm, a typical peak was not observed for both samples probably due to the presence of some carbon impurity that hinder the detection of the π–π* transition around 270 nm. Dynamic light scattering Figure 2 shows the size

• only using water, have sizes close to 100 nm. It is important to note that the samples prepared using grape pomace peel as the biomass source produced smaller particle sizes compared to those prepared with watermelon peel under identical synthesis conditions. The size distribution determined by DLS

Effect of repeating hydrothermal growth processes and rapid thermal annealing on CuO thin film properties

• Monika Ozga,
• Eunika Zielony,
• Aleksandra Wierzbicka,
• Anna Wolska,
• Marcin Klepka,
• Marek Godlewski,
• Bogdan J. Kowalski and
• Bartłomiej S. Witkowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 743–754, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.62

• . The surface of the as-grown films is characterized by an even, random arrangement of grains, elongated in a single direction, with a size of approximately 50 nm. These grains consist of agglomerates of nanocrystallites. However, in the case of sequenced films (after the HT+RTA procedure), those

• system [52]. Both of these mechanisms contribute to an increase in grain size with each successive repetition of the HT+RTA cycle. Another consequence of thermal processing is a change in the surface structure. SEM images reveal that the number of sequencing cycles affects the continuity of the films

• . Analysis of the predominant peak was conducted to assess variations in crystallite size and dislocations (Figure 4B). A distinct contrast between the as-grown and 1× sample is observed for each of these parameters, whereas the graph flattens for the sequenced samples. The nanocrystallite size was estimated

Level set simulation of focused ion beam sputtering of a multilayer substrate

• Alexander V. Rumyantsev,
• Nikolai I. Borgardt,
• Roman L. Volkov and
• Yuri A. Chaplygin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 733–742, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.61

• on evaluating the shape of milled dot and line structures with different depths. Numerical calculations Equation 1 was solved numerically on a primary three-dimensional regular rectangular computational grid with a cell (voxel) size equal to 0.3σ1 to find the function . The function S(x, y, t) was

• negligible for incidence angles smaller than 70°. The values of functions and were tabulated on the basis of SDTrimSP Monte Carlo simulations. The range of incidence angles θ from 70° to 88° was divided into intervals with the step size of 2°, while the hemisphere above the substrate surface was presented

• gallium precipitates, whereas the dark layer surrounding them corresponds to amorphized silicon (a-Si). The second set of structures was fabricated in the serpentine scanning mode with a small number of ion beam passes and pixel spacing values in two orthogonal directions equal to a = b = 60 nm. The size

Simultaneous electrochemical determination of uric acid and hypoxanthine at a TiO₂/graphene quantum dot-modified electrode

• Vu Ngoc Hoang,
• Dang Thi Ngoc Hoa,
• Nguyen Quang Man,
• Le Vu Truong Son,
• Le Van Thanh Son,
• Vo Thang Nguyen,
• Le Thi Hong Phong,
• Ly Hoang Diem,
• Kieu Chan Ly,
• Ho Sy Thang and
• Dinh Quang Khieu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 719–732, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.60

• properties. Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are zero-dimensional graphene derivatives consisting of one to few layers of graphene sheets with a size of less than 20 nm in width [11]. The missing bandgap results in an absence of luminescence in pristine graphene. However, a bandgap can be generated in GQDs

• (101), (004), and (200) planes, respectively. This confirms that the (1:4)TiO2/GQDs suspension contains fine anatase nanoparticles. The broadening of XRD peaks in suspension was employed to evaluate the size (Dhkl) of the crystal domains. It was calculated from the full width at half maximum (B) using

• the Scherrer equation , where λ is the X-ray wavelength (1.5406 Å), θ is the Bragg angle, and K is a constant (ca. 0.9). The average crystallite size of the synthesized TiO2 nanoparticles was found to be 7.1 nm. It is notable that no typical peaks for GQDs can be found in the XRD pattern of solid TiO2

Elastic modulus of β-Ga₂O₃ nanowires measured by resonance and three-point bending techniques

• Annamarija Trausa,
• Sven Oras,
• Sergei Vlassov,
• Mikk Antsov,
• Tauno Tiirats,
• Andreas Kyritsakis,
• Boris Polyakov and
• Edgars Butanovs

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 704–712, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.58

• of the dimension, leading to overestimation of the elastic modulus, which can be mistaken for the “size effect” [18]. The onset diameter of this size effect, when the surface contribution towards the NW stiffening is becoming significant, has been conflictingly reported to be around 10–40 nm and

Enhancing higher-order modal response in multifrequency atomic force microscopy with a coupled cantilever system

• Wendong Sun,
• Jianqiang Qian,
• Yingzi Li,
• Yanan Chen,
• Zhipeng Dou,
• Rui Lin,
• Peng Cheng,
• Xiaodong Gao,
• Quan Yuan and
• Yifan Hu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 694–703, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.57

• the cantilever mass distribution so that the higher-order modal frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, such as adding an inner paddle [16], attaching finite size masses [17], and cutting a rectangular slot in the cantilever [18]. However, most of the above methods involve

• increasing the modal frequency by decreasing the cantilever size to achieve faster scanning speeds [20][21][22]. According to our further study, the bridge/cantilever coupled system model can also significantly increase the modal frequency of the cantilever, providing a new idea for high-frequency fast

• the higher-order modal response of the coupled system gradually increases, which will improve the sensitivity of the detection and promote the development of multifrequency AFM utilizing higher-order modes of the cantilever to image sample properties. Finite element analysis Model size and simulation

Gold nanomakura: nanoarchitectonics and their photothermal response in association with carrageenan hydrogels

• Nabojit Das,
• Vikas,
• Akash Kumar,
• Sanjeev Soni and
• Raja Gopal Rayavarapu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 678–693, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.56

• into heat energy is an intrinsic optical property of metal nanoparticles when irradiated using near-infrared radiation. However, the impact of size and shape on the photothermal behaviour of gold nanomakura particles possessing optical absorption within 600–700 nm as well as on incorporation in

• temperature [2]. The mean free path of an electron is influenced by shape/size of the metal nanoparticles which ultimately governs their physical, chemical, optical, magnetic, catalytic, and electronic properties [3]. All plasmonic metals exhibit optical phenomena over a range of electromagnetic radiation

• incorporation into k-CG hydrogel beads. Transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements The actual mean size of the synthesized makura-shaped nanoparticles was calculated in terms of length/width aspect ratio. Figure 4 shows transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force

Functional fibrillar interfaces: Biological hair as inspiration across scales

• Guillermo J. Amador,
• Brett Klaassen van Oorschot,
• Caiying Liao,
• Jianing Wu and
• Da Wei

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.55

• , reversible adhesion, and surface modulation (e.g., superhydrophobicity). This review will present various functions that biological hairs have been discovered to carry out, with the hairs spanning across six orders of magnitude in size, from the millimeter-thick fur of mammals down to the nanometer-thick

• same phylogenetic class, order, family, genus, and species [8]. However, hair mass deviates slightly from isometry, and it appears that larger organisms are more “hairy”. First, the exponent for power-law fits increases with size, as evidenced by comparing the fits for cells and phages, insects

• that larger organisms dedicate more energy and resources to growing and maintaining hair. This finding motivates the following questions: (1) What are the purposes of hair? (2) How do these purposes vary with organism size? For countless animal species, hairs are strategically placed throughout the

Laser synthesis of nanoparticles in organic solvents – products, reactions, and perspectives

• Theo Fromme,
• Sven Reichenberger,
• Katharine M. Tibbetts and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 638–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.54

• utilizes commercial-grade powders or nanoparticles to downsize the particles by laser irradiation with high fluences [7][25]; LML, in contrast, is used to isochorically alter the shape or increase the size of nanoparticles by low-fluence irradiation of nanoparticles [26][27]. A variant of LSPC is reactive

• certain controllability of the redox reactions occurring during reductive or oxidative laser processing in aqueous media at constant particle size. Furthermore, focusing laser pulses in CO2-saturated water leads to the reduction of CO2, which selectively yields CO [74] or oxocarbon-encapsulated

• the ionic strength of the added salts and the obtained gold particle size (Figure 2). The surface oxidation increased with the anion’s surface charge density until a plateau of around 60% was reached. A further increase in ionic strength showed no change in surface oxidation, which was attributed to

Exfoliation of titanium nitride using a non-thermal plasma process

• Priscila Jussiane Zambiazi,
• Dolores Ribeiro Ricci Lazar,
• Larissa Otubo,
• Rodrigo Fernando Brambilla de Souza,
• Almir Oliveira Neto and
• Cecilia Chaves Guedes-Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 631–637, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.53

• . Remarkably, the cubic crystal structure of TiN was effectively retained, while the (200) crystal plane d-spacing increased from 2.08 to 3.09 Å, accompanied by a reduction in crystallite size and alterations in Raman vibrational modes. Collectively, these findings provide compelling evidence for the

• synthesized utilizing a non-thermal plasma apparatus, as previously developed by de Souza et al. [17]. In this process, similarly as reported in [4], TiN powder with a particle size of approximately 1.0 μm and a purity of 98% (Alfa Aesar) was exposed to a 60 kV electric arc in the presence of a nitrogen gas

• ) crystallographic planes, respectively. In contrast, the exfoliated material exhibited FWHM values of 0.30, 0.24, 0.44, 0.43, and 0.41 for the same crystallographic planes. These FWHM results suggest a reduction in the crystallite size for the exfoliated material. Additionally, a slight but noteworthy shift in the

Comparative analysis of the ultrastructure and adhesive secretion pathways of different smooth attachment pads of the stick insect Medauroidea extradentata (Phasmatodea)

• Julian Thomas,
• Stanislav N. Gorb and
• Thies H. Büscher

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 612–630, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.52

• potentially loose structure of the adhesive secretion reservoir, it is susceptible to rupture, whereby the actual size of the reservoir is difficult to determine. In addition to serving as a repository for the secretion, this reservoir could play an additional role in providing a pliant support structure when

AFM-IR investigation of thin PECVD SiO_x films on a polypropylene substrate in the surface-sensitive mode

• Hendrik Müller,
• Hartmut Stadler,
• Teresa de los Arcos,
• Adrian Keller and
• Guido Grundmeier

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 603–611, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.51

• , equipped with a broadband Carmina OPO Laser (Angewandte Physik & Elektronik GmbH, Germany). Contact Mode NIR2 cantilevers from Anasys Instruments (PR-EX-nIR2-10) were used. The samples were first scanned in contact mode with a resolution between 512 × 256 and 256 × 256 pixels and an image size between 10

Stiffness calibration of qPlus sensors at low temperature through thermal noise measurements

• Laurent Nony,
• Sylvain Clair,
• Daniel Uehli,
• Aitziber Herrero,
• Jean-Marc Themlin,
• Andrea Campos,
• Franck Para,
• Alessandro Pioda and
• Christian Loppacher

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 580–602, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.50

• , the technique mostly employs QTFs, based on the so-called qPlus design, which actually covers different types of sensors in terms of size and design of the electrodes. They all have in common a QTF featuring a metallic tip glued at the free end of one of its prongs. In this study, we report the

• usage on the hardware, the maximum buffer size is limited to N = 8,388,544 samples. Thus, because f1 ≃ 25 kHz, we set fs = 156.250 kHz (Tw = N/fs ≃ 53.6 s). This results in an acquisition bandwidth of the thermal fluctuations of Bs = fs/2 = 78.125 kHz. Note that, because the second flexural eigenmode

Radiofrequency enhances drug release from responsive nanoflowers for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

• Yanyan Wen,
• Ningning Song,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Weiwei Wu,
• Qixiong Lin,
• Minjie Cui,
• Rongrong Li,
• Qiufeng Yu,
• Sixue Wu,
• Yongkang Liang,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 569–579, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.49

• was used to characterize the CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs, which appeared flower-like with a size of 96.27 nm. The in vitro experimental data showed that RF enhanced the degradation of CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs to release Mn2+ and CUR. The cytotoxicity test results indicated that after RF heating, the CUR-Fe@MnO2 NFs

• diameters were 156 nm, 177 nm, and 199 nm, respectively (Figure 2e). The average size obtained from TEM was different from the sizes found by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The reason is that the TEM image depicts the size of the sample in the dry state, while the DLS method depicts the size of the

• hydrated state [31]. The DLS depicted size is the closest to that in vivo. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum of CUR exhibited vibrational absorption peaks at 1207 cm−1 and 3330 cm−1 corresponding to C=O and –OH, respectively, in the phenolic hydroxy group (Figure 2f). Similarly, for bis(4

Directed growth of quinacridone chains on the vicinal Ag(35 1 1) surface

• Niklas Humberg,
• Lukas Grönwoldt and
• Moritz Sokolowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 556–568, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.48

• chains across the steps, we propose the following model: We note that, because of the specific orientation and size of the molecules, the distance between the ends of the chains and the step edge can vary by one Ag(100) lattice constant (aAg(100) = 2.89 Å [31]). This is illustrated by the two models in

• terraces is not sufficient to form the β-phase. One may also ask whether this preference of the β-phase for large terraces leads to a step bunching on the substrate surface in order to increase the size of the terraces. However, we could not find any evidence that the terrace width distribution changed

On the additive artificial intelligence-based discovery of nanoparticle neurodegenerative disease drug delivery systems

• Shan He,
• Julen Segura Abarrategi,
• Harbil Bediaga,
• Sonia Arrasate and
• Humberto González-Díaz

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 535–555, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.47

• contains all indispensable variables for defining the NDD structures and the most significant parameters for NPs, such as morphology, size, and assay conditions, among other things. In the IFPTML-LDA with cross system, we included not only all essential variables but also two crossing PTOs. These new PTOs

• solubility [90]. Most NDDs of this database are in the PSAdi range of 60–120 Å2. Stephen et al. suggested that CNS drugs should have a PSA value below 90 Å2 for a decent BBB permeability, among other physicochemical characteristics such as number of hydrogen bond donors, molecular size, and shape, with

• smaller contributions from hydrogen bond acceptors [89]. Although this type of graphic is clearly a simplification of the whole database, it offers simple guidelines for researchers concerned with designing NDD compounds or libraries with improved probability of BBB penetration. The size of the vast

Cholesterol nanoarchaeosomes for alendronate targeted delivery as an anti-endothelial dysfunction agent

• Horacio Emanuel Jerez,
• Yamila Roxana Simioni,
• Kajal Ghosal,
• Maria Jose Morilla and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 517–534, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.46

• through 0.4 μm and 0.2 μm pore size polycarbonate filters using a thermobarrel extruder (Northern Lipids, Inc. BC, Canada). Free ALN was removed by gel filtration on Sephadex G-50. Briefly, aliquots of 300 μL of nanovesicles were poured on a 3 mL syringe packed with Sephadex G-50, centrifuged for 5 min at

• Bligh and Dyer method [77] by a colorimetric phosphate microassay [75]. Size and ζ potential of nanovesicles were determined by dynamic light scattering and phase analysis light scattering, respectively, using a Zetasizer Nano ZS apparatus (Malvern Instruments Ltd, UK). To prepare RhPE-labeled

• plates by covering them with 10% formaldehyde in PBS for 15 min at room temperature (RT). After removing the fixing buffer carefully, cells were covered with fresh ORO working solution (6 mL of 5 mg/mL ORO in isopropanol stock solution) and 4 mL of distilled water filtered through a 3 μm pore size filter

Electron-induced deposition using Fe(CO)₄MA and Fe(CO)₅ – effect of MA ligand and process conditions

• Hannah Boeckers,
• Atul Chaudhary,
• Petra Martinović,
• Amy V. Walker,
• Lisa McElwee-White and
• Petra Swiderek

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 500–516, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.45

• heteroleptic precursor Fe(CO)4MA, thus, offers the possibility to suppress contributions of thermal reactions, which can compromise control over the deposit shape and size in FEBID processes. Keywords: autocatalytic growth; cryo-EBID; electron beam-induced deposition; heteroleptic iron precursor; thermal

• surface reactions; Introduction Focused electron beam-induced deposition (FEBID) is a state-of-the-art direct-write process for the fabrication of nanoscale materials and devices with arbitrary shape and size down to the sub-10 nm regime [1][2][3]. In FEBID, precursor molecules that contain the element

• ]. In these cases, though, the initial CO loss was more rapid, which was ascribed to the larger size of the molecules and consequently larger reactive scattering cross sections. Overall, the results summarized above show that there is room for further improvements to devise FEBID processes for

Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under visible light by cobalt ferrite nanoparticles/graphene quantum dots

• Vo Chau Ngoc Anh,
• Le Thi Thanh Nhi,
• Le Thi Kim Dung,
• Dang Thi Ngoc Hoa,
• Nguyen Truong Son,
• Nguyen Thi Thao Uyen,
• Nguyen Ngoc Uyen Thu,
• Le Van Thanh Son,
• Le Trung Hieu,
• Tran Ngoc Tuyen and
• Dinh Quang Khieu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 475–489, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.43

• and CF-GQDs-200 are 1.25 and 1.05, and 1.09 and 1.00, respectively. The ratios in CF are higher than those in CF-GQDs, indicating that the number of cobalt ions at tetrahedral sites in CF is higher than that in CF/GQDs-200. The crystallite size of the as-prepared CoFe2O4 ferrite particles was

• calculated from the (311) peak of the XRD pattern by using the Scherrer equation [14], where Dhkl is the crystallite size; k is the shape factor (0.89); θ is the diffraction angle; β is the full width at half maximum of the (311) peak, and λ is the X-ray wavelength (1.54 Å). The average crystallite sizes of

• are centred at 2θ of 23°, 30.9°, and 39.6°, corresponding to d-spacing values of 0.52, 0.45, and 0.21 nm, respectively. A larger d-spacing value manifests that GQDs contain oxygen functional groups. This could be assigned to the size of GQDs. The broad nature of the diffraction peaks is attributed to

Fabrication of nanocrystal forms of ᴅ-cycloserine and their application for transdermal and enteric drug delivery systems

• Hsuan-Ang Tsai,
• Tsai-Miao Shih,
• Theodore Tsai,
• Jhe-Wei Hu,
• Yi-An Lai,
• Jui-Fu Hsiao and
• Guochuan Emil Tsai

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 465–474, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.42

• and then to the in vitro Franz diffusion test with reservoir patch formulation as well as in vivo pharmacokinetics study with enteric capsules. We tested these formulations regarding their nanocrystal physical properties, size effect, and dissolution rate, respectively. We found that DCS nanocrystals

• showed good performance in the Franz diffusion test and rodent pharmacokinetic studies due to the nanoparticle size and faster dissolution as compared with the commercial DCS powder. These DCS nanocrystal formulations could offer a new approach for the development of an advanced drug delivery system for

• ]. Nanocrystals can improve many physicochemical properties of drugs such as solubility, size effect, dissolution rate, and adhesiveness to surface membranes [23]. The limitations of conventional medication delivery can be overcome by advanced drug delivery methodologies, such as transdermal drug delivery (TDD

Superconducting spin valve effect in Co/Pb/Co heterostructures with insulating interlayers

• Andrey A. Kamashev,
• Nadir N. Garif’yanov,
• Aidar A. Validov,
• Vladislav Kataev,
• Alexander S. Osin,
• Yakov V. Fominov and
• Ilgiz A. Garifullin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 457–464, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.41

• smaller thicknesses of the S layer due to the size effects [49]. Apparently, the inverse S/F proximity effect becomes more pronounced as dPb decreases, despite the existence of insulating interlayers. The here obtained value of ΔTc at the optimal thickness of the Pb layer is twice as high compared to

Sidewall angle tuning in focused electron beam-induced processing

• Sangeetha Hari,
• Willem F. van Dorp,
• Johannes J. L. Mulders,
• Piet H. F. Trompenaars,
• Pieter Kruit and
• Cornelis W. Hagen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 447–456, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.40

• . Another major difference is that in the experiment, a line is being etched with a PE beam having a finite spot size. The effect of pixel dwell time, pixel overlap and multiple passes has not been taken into account, all of which could play an important role in circumstances involving surface diffusion

Heat-induced morphological changes in silver nanowires deposited on a patterned silicon substrate

• Elyad Damerchi,
• Sven Oras,
• Edgars Butanovs,
• Allar Liivlaid,
• Mikk Antsov,
• Boris Polyakov,
• Annamarija Trausa,
• Veronika Zadin,
• Andreas Kyritsakis,
• Loïc Vidal,
• Karine Mougin,
• Siim Pikker and
• Sergei Vlassov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 435–446, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.39

• organics. However, when the size of the structures is reduced to the nanoscale, metals exhibit distinct behavior at elevated temperatures compared to their larger counterparts [20][21]. Generally, a reduction in the melting point occurs as the size and dimensionality of the nanostructures decrease [20][22

• ][23]. This phenomenon is closely related to the variation of surface energy with size [24]. For instance, the melting temperature can decrease by several hundred degrees for structures smaller than 10 nm [25]. In practical applications, the diameters of Ag NWs are typically significantly larger

Potential of a deep eutectic solvent in silver nanoparticle fabrication for antibiotic residue detection

• Le Hong Tho,
• Bui Xuan Khuyen,
• Ngoc Xuan Dat Mai and
• Nhu Hoa Thi Tran

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 426–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.38

• (Figure 2B) shows four characteristic peaks at 38.2°, 44.3°, 64.4°, and 77.6°, corresponding to the (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes of face-centered cubic (fcc) Ag, respectively. The crystallite size is 30.61 nm, calculated from the most characteristic (111) peak of the Ag NPs [40]. From the

Unveiling the nature of atomic defects in graphene on a metal surface

• Karl Rothe,
• Nicolas Néel and
• Jörg Kröger

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 416–425, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.37

• pA, size: 40 nm × 40 nm). Top inset: atomically resolved graphene lattice with defects 1 and 2 (10 mV, 40 nA, 5.9 nm × 5.9 nm). Bottom inset: moiré superstructure with lozenge unit cell (side length: ≈2.53 nm) and the atomically resolved graphene lattice. Triangles mark different valley stacking