Upcycling agroindustrial waste into graphene oxide supports for gold nanoparticles: toward sustainable nanomaterials

• Juan Marcos Castro-Tapia,
• Selene Acosta,
• Hiram Joazet Ojeda-Galván,
• Elsie Evelyn Araujo-Palomo,
• Edgar Giovanni Villabona-Leal and
• Mildred Quintana

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 489–504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.32

• conventionally synthesized through oxidation of graphite by chemical methods such as the Hummers' method or its modifications, which involve strong acids (e.g., H2SO4 or H3PO4), oxidants (e.g., KMnO4), and occasionally NaNO3 to facilitate exfoliation and oxidation of the graphite layers [6][7][8][9][10]. While

• coordination to AuCl4− than hydroxy and carboxyl groups. Moreover, residual biomass-derived carbonaceous layers or amorphous carbon deposits may partially mask the GO surface, physically blocking otherwise reactive sites. The combination of these factors reduces the effective density of accessible nucleation

Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• layers was predicted to be very high [62], hampering the vacancy diffusion mechanism. Nevertheless, a relatively thick native oxide layer can still form on otherwise stable HfS2 after plasma oxidation. In this process, O ions are believed to permeate through grain boundaries between small crystals and

• contains a mirror twin boundary as a 1D line defect, in full analogy to a 3D twin crystal with a 2D twin plane. An atomic model of a mirror twin crystal with a MTB as formed in single layers of MoS2 is shown in Figure 10a. Such MTBs emerge when the threefold-symmetric MoS2 is grown on a sixfold-symmetric

• substrates or adjacent layers in multilayered structures. Techniques such as angle-resolved XPS may address this issue by varying the photoelectron emission angle, enabling depth profiling and providing insights into defect distributions across different layers [193][194][195]. The complexity of defect types

Nanocarrier-integrated multilayer films produced by 3D printing for improved skin adhesion and curcumin photostability

• Thayse Viana de Oliveira,
• Ana Paula Farias Leão,
• Júlia Leão,
• Cesar Liberato Petzhold and
• Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 440–453, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.30

• efficiency. Films were fabricated containing either C-NCs (FC-NC) or unloaded curcumin (FC) and consisted of three layers, namely, a chitosan-based bottom layer, a middle layer of carboxymethylcellulose and alginate, and a carboxymethylcellulose top layer incorporating titanium dioxide (TiO2). The lower and

• intermediate layers contained C-NC or curcumin. The final films (15 × 15 × 1.5 mm) contained 282.20 ± 7.75 µg and 246.80 ± 6.70 µg of curcumin in FC-NC and FC, respectively. Films containing the bottom chitosan layer exhibited the highest bioadhesion, while the presence of a TiO2 top layer effectively

• limited. Therefore, in the present study, we designed 3D-printed topical films comprising three distinct layers, namely, (i) a bottom layer composed of a chitosan gel containing curcumin, (ii) an intermediate layer composed of carboxymethylcellulose, alginate gel, and curcumin, and (iii) a top layer

First-principles study on elastic properties of Cu, (Cu_1−x,Ni_x)₃Sn and interfacial mechanical properties of (Cu_1−x,Ni_x)₃Sn/Cu in the lead-free solder joint

• Guomin Hua

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 428–439, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.29

• calculated. Based on the orientation relationship of Cu3Sn/Cu interfaces [13], namely, (001)ε//(111)Cu and [100]ε//[−110]Cu, the interface was constructed by adhering Cu and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slabs. The Cu slab consisted of four atomic layers, the (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab consisted of three atomic layers, and the

• layers, a Cu slab with four atomic layers, and a vacuum layer with thickness of 1 nm. The adjacent atomic layers of Cu slab and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab were free, and the remaining atomic layers of Cu slab and (CuxNi1−x)3Sn slab were fixed. The thickness of the interface layer was defined as thickness of free

• atomic layers, a. Tensile stress was applied along the direction normal to the interface plane, and the relationship between tensile stress and tensile strain of (CuxNi1−x)3Sn/Cu interfaces were calculated (Figure 4b). The tensile modulus, Etensile, was determined as the ratio of the tensile stress to

Polycatecholamine nanocoatings on stainless steel: the effect on attachment of human fibroblasts and platelets

• Paulina Trzaskowska,
• Ewa Rybak,
• Maciej Trzaskowski,
• Kamil Kopeć,
• Jakub Krzemiński,
• Rafał Podgórski,
• Hatice Genc,
• Mehtap Civelek and
• Iwona Cicha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 365–380, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.25

• layers on stainless steel 316L via a novel in situ oxidation process and evaluated their physicochemical properties and cellular interactions at the nano/microscale. Surface characterization revealed that the polymeric coatings formed a homogenous layer with distinct topographical features and thickness

• stability. Consequently, a variety of surface modifications have been developed to improve cell–material interactions, including anodized nanopit arrays, hydroxyapatite–collagen layers on polydopamine-modified steel, nanoporous coatings influencing integrin/ERK signaling, and bilayers comprising graphene

• 1.58 and 4.09 µm, respectively. For PTYR, much thinner coating layers were measured, with a mean value of 308.78 nm (range: 168–441 nm) for SS-PTYR 30 min and mean value of 360.86 nm (range: 243–637 nm) for SS-PTYR 24 h. As expected, the thickness of PDA and PTYR layers increased with the coating time

Ferroelectric nanodot reservoir for neuromorphic computing

• Anna Razumnaya,
• Yuri Tikhonov,
• Dmitrii Naidenko,
• Léo Boron,
• Valerii Vinokur and
• Igor Lukyanchuk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 352–364, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.24

• individual nanodots, intrinsic nonlinearity, stemming from the hysteretic switching behavior, and flexible integration, including time- and space-multiplexing schemes for efficient data exchange with synaptic layers. As an extension of the proposed platform, the ferroelectric nanodots can be designed to host

Beam shaping techniques for pulsed laser ablation in liquids: Unlocking tunable control of nanoparticle synthesis in liquids

• Sergio Molina-Prados,
• Nadezhda M. Bulgakova,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov,
• Jesus Lancis,
• Gladys Mínguez Vega and
• Carlos Doñate-Buendia

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 309–342, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.22

• this procedure is not so evident. The diameter of the ablated spots under different water layers for a 120 fs pulsed beam with a spherical lens of 40 mm focal length is shown in Figure 5. When ablation is carried out in air, the craters caused in the target have the smallest diameter when the relative

Fast vortex dynamics and relaxation times in NbRe-based heterostructures

• Francesco De Chiara,
• Zahra Makhdoumi Kakhaki,
• Francesco Avitabile,
• Francesco Colangelo,
• Abhishek Kumar,
• Carmine Attanasio and
• Carla Cirillo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 292–302, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.20

• by the time-dependent magnetic flux, resulting in a magnetic breaking effect [29][30]. In the opposite limit of thin capping layers, the proximity effect plays a dominant role leading to an enhancement of the critical vortex velocity and promoting faster relaxation processes [26][27][28]. In this

• deposition rates were later calibrated ex situ using a Bruker Dektak XT stylus profilometer by measuring step heights in samples. In the NbRe/Au sample, the NbRe layer has a thickness = 20 nm, while = 15 nm in the NbRe/Py sample. The corresponding Au and Py layers are dAu = 5 nm and dPy = 4 nm. Given the

• bilayers cannot be ascribed to the different thicknesses of the NbRe layers since NbRe films of the same thickness exhibit nearly identical superconducting critical temperatures (around 7 K, ΔTc ≈ 0.1 K) and low-temperature resistivities, of the order of ρ = 140 μΩ·cm [19]. In contrast, the capping layers

Advancing nanolithography: a comprehensive review of materials for local anodic oxidation with AFM

• Matteo Lorenzoni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 275–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.19

• layers as thin as sub-nanometer for SiO2 [37] and extending to tens of nanometers for materials such as SiOxCy [34], TiOx, and MoOx [38]. In contrast, atomic layer deposition (ALD) provides exceptional conformality and atomic-scale thickness control, typically depositing films at 0.1–0.2 nm per cycle [39

• positive and negative tone as well as self-development reactions within ultrathin molecular resist layers [56][65][66], with resolutions reaching sub-10 nm scales [67]. As demonstrated by Prof. Ivo W. Rangelov and colleagues, FEL relies on the high-intensity electric fields generated at the sharp AFM tip

• extensive use in microelectronics, the predictable oxidation behavior, and compatibility with microfabrication processes. The formation of SiO2 enables high-resolution patterning, often achieving feature sizes below 10 nm, making it invaluable for applications like insulating layers in transistors

Multilayered hyperbolic Au/TiO₂ nanostructures for enhancing the nonlinear response around the epsilon-near-zero point

• Fernando Arturo Araiza-Sixtos,
• Mauricio Gomez-Robles,
• Rafael Salas-Montiel and
• Raúl Rangel-Rojo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 251–261, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.17

• found that we could avoid problems like lack of adherence between the layers. We also decided that, instead of relying on a tunable femtosecond source, we would manipulate the material geometry to design different samples with an ENZ point at different wavelength values around 800 nm, that is, we will

• employ the effective medium approximation (EMA) to calculate the properties of the whole system. It is important to note that the layers must follow a metal–dielectric repetition sequence. For a metal and a dielectric with permittivities εm and εd, respectively, it is possible to obtain a relation for

• the principal components and of the composite, which are given by [25]: where dm and dd are the widths of the metallic and dielectric layers, respectively, as seen in Figure 1a. The z-scan technique employed to study the nonlinear properties of the samples involves normal incident light, where the

Comparative study on 3D morphologies of delignified, single tracheids and fibers of five wood species

• Helen Gorges,
• Felicitas von Usslar,
• Cordt Zollfrank,
• Silja Flenner,
• Imke Greving,
• Martin Müller,
• Clemens F. Schaber,
• Chuchu Li and
• Stanislav N. Gorb

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 239–250, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.16

• (S1 and S2) and a tertiary wall (T) strongly supplemented by lignin. Apart from the middle lamella (ML) and the primary wall (P), the S2 layer being the thickest of the three main layers (S1, S2, and T), is the most important for mechanical support [1][10][11]. Lignin is present in all layers of the

• secondary and tertiary wall structure, with varying distribution and concentration across these layers but the highest proportions generally found in the S2 and T layers (spruce earlywood: ML 26.8%, S1 10.4%, S2+T 62.8%; spruce latewood: ML 18.4%, S1 7.9%, S2+T 73.7%) [12][13]. Moreover, lignification plays

Gold nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide as a highly effective catalyst for the selective α,β-dehydrogenation of N-alkyl-4-piperidones

• Brenda Flore Kenyim,
• Mihir Tzalis,
• Marilyn Kaul,
• Robert Oestreich,
• Aysenur Limon,
• Chancellin Pecheu Nkepdep and
• Christoph Janiak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 218–238, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.15

• a heterogeneous, rough surface with lamellar layers and pronounced macroporosity. The rGO carbon (Figure 2b) exhibits a structure composed of thin, wrinkled, and sheet-like layers, characteristic of exfoliated graphene-based materials. The morphology of CB (Figure 2c) is formed of highly aggregated

• AuNPs and carbon layers. Similar behavior has been reported in other Au–polyoxometalate systems where the W signal dominates and the Si 2p peak is below detection limits [45]. Collectively, these XPS results confirm that gold is predominantly metallic (Au0) and the rGO support contains functional groups

• layers and lower microporosity of rGO (Figure 2 and Figure S1, Supporting Information File 1) minimize product entrapment, thereby enhancing overall catalytic efficiency. These textural properties make rGO the most effective support for AuNP catalysts. For the AC- and CB-based composites, a higher

Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging of contaminant species in chemical vapour deposited graphene on copper

• Barry Brennan,
• Vlad-Petru Veigang-Radulescu,
• Philipp Braeuninger-Weimer,
• Stephan Hofmann and
• Andrew J. Pollard

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 200–213, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.13

• growth of the graphene; in particular, the accumulation of contaminations present in the copper foil, which has implications for the potential electrical properties of the graphene. We also observe variations in the permeation of oxygen underneath the graphene layers, resulting in oxidation of the copper

• quality control method. These results highlight the significance of understanding the role of trace contaminants and elemental distributions within the catalyst in conjunction with growth parameters for optimised CVD of graphene layers. Keywords: contamination; copper; CVD; graphene; ToF-SIMS

• layers, or normalised to the maximum ion intensity to highlight location of species at low concentration. To probe the surface of the samples in more detail, larger 500 µm × 500 µm surface images (with a pixel density of 256 × 256) were also acquired with 25 keV Bi3+ ions for longer acquisition times to

Structure-dependent thermochromism of PAZO thin films: theory and experiment

• Georgi Mateev,
• Dean Dimov,
• Nataliya Berberova-Buhova,
• Nikoleta Kircheva,
• Todor Dudev,
• Ludmila Nikolova,
• Elena Stoykova,
• Keehoon Hong,
• Dimana Nazarova,
• Silvia Angelova and
• Lian Nedelchev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 186–199, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.12

• nondoped thin films [17][18], as well as on thin nanocomposite layers doped with nanoparticles of diverse chemical compositions, shapes, and sizes [19]. Additional efforts have focused on thermally treated layers of pure PAZO up to 200 °C [20], and on PAZO/PAH (with PAH denoting poly(allylamine

• thin layers subjected to thermal treatment at temperatures up to 300 °C. Particular attention is given to the changes in absorption features and spectral shifts that may arise from structural rearrangements within the material. To rationalize the experimental findings, density functional theory (DFT

• fluorescence. Moreover, the reorientation of the aggregates themselves appears to demand an even greater energy threshold. The enhancement of absorption around 444 nm is of limited practical utility, as the absorption becomes excessively strong, restricting effective energy delivery to the surface layers of

Capabilities of the 3D-MLSI software tool in superconducting neuron design

• Irina E. Tarasova,
• Nikita S. Shuravin,
• Liubov N. Karelina,
• Fedor A. Razorenov,
• Evgeny N. Zhardetsky,
• Aleksandr S. Ionin,
• Mikhail M. Khapaev and
• Vitaly V. Bol’ginov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 122–138, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.8

• -depth testing regarding the capability of 3D-MLSI for inductance extraction, several series of simple C-shaped two-junction SQUIDs were fabricated and studied. The fabricated samples contained three superconducting niobium layers separated by insulating layers (see Figure 1). The first superconducting

• layer (M1) served both as a superconducting ground plane and the bottom electrode of the Josephson junctions. The second (M2) and third (M3) layers formed interferometers loops, control lines, and wiring. Overlap areas between layers M2 and M3 provided inductive coupling between elements. The

• thicknesses of the superconducting layers were 200, 250, and 350 nm for M1, M2, and M3, respectively. The SiO2 insulating layers had thicknesses of 200 nm (I1) and 300 nm (I2). Deposition of metallic layers was performed via magnetron sputtering in argon atmosphere, while insulating layers were thermally

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

• relevant when considering different threats. Water is the most pervasive menace, in both indoor and outdoor environments [52]. For stone and other inorganic materials, high porosity and surface irregularities can increase coating absorption, resulting in thicker and less uniform layers that compromise

• temperatures, demonstrating its potential for passive cooling and material preservation in architectural heritage. Embedding specific functional fillers into thin layers is the best way to quickly endorse conventional and tailored polymers, possibly already widely used in the field of cultural heritage

Terahertz-range on-chip local oscillator based on Josephson junction arrays for superconducting quantum-limited receivers

• Fedor V. Khan,
• Lyudmila V. Filippenko,
• Andrey B. Ermakov,
• Mikhail Yu. Fominsky and
• Valery P. Koshelets

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2296–2305, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.158

• technological layers near the JJ and the shunt in the cross-section shown by the dashed line in Figure 2 is shown in Figure 3. The details of the fabrication processes can be found in our previous works [19][20]. Measurement technique When the JJ array irradiates the SIS mixer, the probability of quasiparticle

• image of the junctions in the array. The length of each of the three sections of the array is 2 mm (the major part is not shown for visibility). The dashed red line shows the cross-section of the layers illustrated in Figure 3. Cross-section of the technological layers near the JJ and the shunt (see the

Visualizing nanostructures in supramolecular hydrogels: a correlative study using confocal and cryogenic scanning electron microscopy

• Shaun M. Smith,
• Ferdinando Malagreca,
• Jacqueline Hicks,
• Giuseppe Mantovani,
• David B. Amabilino,
• Christopher Parmenter and
• Lluïsa Pérez-García

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2274–2284, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.156

• cationic imidazolium layers lie the bromide counterions. Note: sizes are not to scale. The molecular structures of the fluorophores (ZnPc and DPP-BC) are also shown. CLSM micrographs of ZnPc@Gel at two magnifications. (A) Micrograph of an air bubble present in a ZnPc@Gel sample. (B) Region where the gel

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

Ultrathin water layers on mannosylated gold nanoparticles

• Maiara A. Iriarte Alonso,
• Jorge H. Melillo,
• Silvina Cerveny,
• Yujin Tong and
• Alexander M. Bittner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2183–2198, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.151

• hydrophobic tips. While VSFG indicated preferential hydration of the dimannoside and proved conformational changes in the organic ligands, AFM provided sub-nanometer changes in particle topography due to water adsorption. In general, the dimannoside nanoparticles condense ultrathin water layers upon humidity

• inorganic surfaces, usually modified with organic layers, and probed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), vibrational sum frequency generation (VSFG), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). For VSFG and AFM, we systematically varied the relative air humidity (RH). DLS and ZP yield particle size

• organic layers. In contrast, VSFG was applied to obtain interface-sensitive information on CH and OH bonds at the AuNP/air interface, under hydration and dehydration. We also used a deuterated water (D2O) atmosphere to distinguish the mannosyl hydroxy groups from adsorbed and absorbed water. Absorption is

Missing links in nanomaterials research impacting productivity and perceptions

• Santosh K. Tiwari and
• Nannan Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2168–2176, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.149

• nanoscale science to commercial technology is complex, involving multiple layers of regulation, safety, interdisciplinary integration, and market readiness. Need of dedicated regulatory systems Although experts and policymakers at various levels often question the output and commercial viability of

Electron transport through nanoscale multilayer graphene and hexagonal boron nitride junctions

• Aleksandar Staykov and
• Takaya Fujisaki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2132–2143, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.147

• ) method combined with density functional theory (DFT) to compare electron transport through several layers of nanoscale graphene and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). Calculations were performed for one to six layers, corresponding to thicknesses of 0.5–3.0 nm, respectively. Electron transport was computed

• perpendicular to the layers in the stacking direction. We compared the decay of the current with the number of layers and evaluated the ability of h-BN to filter currents as a material coating. To investigate the effect of disorder, we included two major defects in the graphene lattice, namely, nitrogen doping

• [22]. The electron tunneling through ultrathin h-BN crystalline barriers was investigated recently with experimental techniques showing exponential decay of the current with the number of layers [23]. Accurate density functional theory (DFT) calculations demonstrated the bandgap change in one to eight

Rapid synthesis of highly monodisperse AgSbS₂ nanocrystals: unveiling multifaceted activities in cancer therapy, antibacterial strategies, and antioxidant defense

• Funda Ulusu,
• Adem Sarilmaz,
• Yakup Ulusu,
• Faruk Ozel and
• Mahmut Kus

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2105–2115, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.145

• their simpler outer membranes compared to those of gram-negative species. The moderate effectiveness of AgSbS2 NCs against E. coli (MIC and MBC; 1.0 mg/mL and 2.0 mg/mL, respectively) also aligns with findings in nanoparticle research where the outer lipopolysaccharide layers of gram-negative bacteria

Molecular and mechanical insights into gecko seta adhesion: multiscale simulations combining molecular dynamics and the finite element method

• Yash Jain,
• Saeed Norouzi,
• Tobias Materzok,
• Stanislav N. Gorb and
• Florian Müller-Plathe

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2055–2076, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.141

• surface, and a 13 nm thick amorphous bulk below, which matched the same bead density as our previous random-substrate model. All substrate beads had identical interactions with the spatula, and both layers were held fixed in space. Since the regular top monolayer differed from the fully random arrangement

Evaluating metal-organic precursors for focused ion beam-induced deposition through solid-layer decomposition analysis

• Benedykt R. Jany,
• Katarzyna Madajska,
• Aleksandra Butrymowicz-Kubiak,
• Franciszek Krok and
• Iwona B. Szymańska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1942–1951, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.135

• new metal-organic precursors, in the form of supported thick layers, to the ion beam irradiation is studied through analysis of the chemical composition and morphology of the resulting structures. This is done using SEM backscattered electron/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy along with machine

• studies. Here, we present a pathway for unraveling how the chemical composition of metal-organic precursors affects their decomposition when irradiated with FIB in the form of supported layers. A decomposition process of the studied layer was quantitatively monitored by scanning electron microscopy

• analysis of nanostructures [33]. Finally, we determined the quantitative chemical composition of the formed metal-rich deposits (structures). While the decomposition of precursor layers presents a significant challenge compared to gas-phase deposition driven by differing mechanisms, our approach of layer