Efficiency of single-pulse laser fragmentation of organic nutraceutical dispersions in a circular jet flow-through reactor

• Tina Friedenauer,
• Maximilian Spellauge,
• Alexander Sommereyns,
• Verena Labenski,
• Tuba Esatbeyoglu,
• Christoph Rehbock,
• Heinz P. Huber and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 711–727, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.55

• organic drugs such as paclitaxel [40] and fenofibrate [42] and on C60 and VOPc [2][22][34], where a reduction of particle size distributions with increasing laser fluence was reported (at either undefined or high PPV values), we also analyzed the particle size distribution of the educt and product

• experiments of IrO2 [14], is not ruled out, but these cannot be detected with the measurement methods used for organic materials. The number-weighted particle size distribution determined via SEM in Figure 3C at the example of 0.1 wt % curcumin shows that the initially polydisperse, bimodal distribution with

• order of magnitude larger compared to the curcumin particles, which is also reflected in the number-weighted particle density distribution in Figure 4C, and the density of both materials is similar, the method of analytical centrifugation is useful to compare the hydrodynamic particle size distribution

Colloidal few layered graphene–tannic acid preserves the biocompatibility of periodontal ligament cells

• Teissir Ben Ammar,
• Naji Kharouf,
• Dominique Vautier,
• Housseinou Ba,
• Nivedita Sudheer,
• Philippe Lavalle and
• Vincent Ball

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.51

• more in-depth its layered structure, consisting of approximately four layers. Quantitative analysis of SEM and TEM images enabled the determination of the FLG–TA sheets’ average lateral size distribution, presented in Figure 1F, indicating an average lateral size of approximately 2 µm. Note that the

• determination of the size distribution was attempted by means of dynamic light scattering but was unsuccessful owing to the lack of transparency of the suspensions even after strong dilution. The TEM images also reveal visible granules atop the layers (Figure 1D,E). Additional analysis of these granules (Figure

• exfoliation of graphite assisted by TA (B,C). Image (C) originates from the marked box in image (B). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs of exfoliated FLG–TA (D,E). Size distribution and average lateral size of FLG sheets (F). Raman spectra (A) and survey XPS spectra (B) of FLG–TA and initial

Aprepitant-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: a novel approach to enhance oral bioavailability

• Mazhar Hussain,
• Muhammad Farooq,
• Muhammad Asad Saeed,
• Muhammad Ijaz,
• Sherjeel Adnan,
• Zeeshan Masood,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Wafa Ishaq and
• Nabeela Ameer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 652–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.50

• reducing the thickness of the diffusional layer in the gastrointestinal tract. The PDI is a parameter used to define particle size distribution. PDI values above 0.7 indicate a disperse particle size distribution. The APT-loaded SLNs APT-CD-NP4 and APT-PX-NP8 showed PDI values below 0.2, indicating uniform

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• radius of 15.24 ± 1.27 nm, which is in line with the definition of MEs, having a hydrodynamic radius between 10 and 100 nm [18]. Furthermore, it was observed that the M7-EOCF formulation had a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.334 ± 0.054, indicating homogeneity (PDI < 0.5) in the droplet size distribution

Functionalized gold nanoflowers on carbon screen-printed electrodes: an electrochemical platform for biosensing hemagglutinin protein of influenza A H1N1 virus

• Carlos Enrique Torres-Méndez,
• Sharmilee Nandi,
• Klara Martinovic,
• Patrizia Kühne,
• Yifan Liu,
• Sam Taylor,
• Maria Lysandrou,
• Maria Ines Berrojo Romeyro Mascarenhas,
• Viktoria Langwallner,
• Javier Enrique Sebastián Alonso,
• Ivana Jovanovic,
• Maike Lüftner,
• Georgia-Vasiliki Gkountana,
• David Bern,
• Abdul-Raouf Atif,
• Ehsan Manouchehri Doulabi,
• Gemma Mestres and
• Masood Kamali-Moghaddam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 540–550, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.42

• for 40 s at 2 kV (Emitech SC7640, Quorum technologies). Representative micrographs of the AuNFs were taken using a secondary in-lens detector at a working distance of 1.6 mm and an acceleration voltage of 10 keV (Ziess LEO 1530, AB Carl Zeiss). The size distribution of the AuNFs was calculated by

• biosensing system and the effect on electrochemical current upon H1 protein recognition. SEM images of (A) CSPE and (B, C) AuNFs/CSPE; (D) size distribution of the gold nanoflowers on AuNFs/CSPE. CV characterization at different steps of the electrode modification, measurements performed in 0.1 M KCl

N₂⁺-implantation-induced tailoring of structural, morphological, optical, and electrical characteristics of sputtered molybdenum thin films

• Usha Rani,
• Kafi Devi,
• Divya Gupta and
• Sanjeev Aggarwal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 495–509, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.38

• of the nanoparticles, influencing their resonance properties and, subsequently, the absorbance spectrum [49]. Furthermore, the alteration in peak location indicates an increased number of nanoparticles or a modification in their size distribution resulting from damage caused by ion implantation

Effect of additives on the synthesis efficiency of nanoparticles by laser-induced reduction

• Rikuto Kuroda,
• Takahiro Nakamura,
• Hideki Ina and
• Shuhei Shibata

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 464–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.35

• with a wide particle size distribution of >10 nm, particles with a square shape of >50 nm were also observed. It is thought that the square-shaped particles were formed by crystal growth of the atoms produced by laser irradiation as nuclei, while consuming unreacted ions in the solution through a self

• -catalytic effect. This also suggests that the reduction reaction was not complete after 10 min of laser irradiation. The sample after 30 min of laser irradiation shows that particles with a narrow particle size distribution of less than 10 nm in diameter were formed. In contrast, in the sample with 10 vol

• % IPA, even in the TEM image of the sample after 10 min of laser irradiation, nanoparticles with a narrow particle size distribution of less than 10 nm in diameter were observed. This suggests that the nanoparticle synthesis reaction finished after 10 min of irradiation. This is due to the fact that the

Size control of nanoparticles synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in liquids using donut-shaped beams

• Abdel Rahman Altakroury,
• Oleksandr Gatsa,
• Farbod Riahi,
• Zongwen Fu,
• Miroslava Flimelová,
• Andrei Samokhvalov,
• Stephan Barcikowski,
• Carlos Doñate-Buendía,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov and
• Bilal Gökce

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 407–417, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.31

• GROC·UJI, Institute of New Imaging Technologies, Universitat Jaume I, Av. de Vicent Sos Baynat, s/n, 12071 Castellón, Spain 10.3762/bjnano.16.31 Abstract The potential to modify the size distribution of nanoparticles synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in liquids is demonstrated using a donut-shaped

• laser beam. In experiments on pulsed laser ablation in water of gold, yttrium oxide, and high-entropy alloy targets with both Gaussian and donut-shaped beams, we observed a significant reduction in particle size, narrowing of the size distribution width, and an improvement in sphericity when utilizing

• nanoparticles (NPs) with defined particle sizes and narrow size distribution width is driven by the growing integration of nanomaterials into various industrial applications, such as medicine [1][2][3], catalysis [4][5], sensors [6][7], and additive manufacturing [8]. The performance of NPs typically depends on

ReactorAFM/STM – dynamic reactions on surfaces at elevated temperature and atmospheric pressure

• Tycho Roorda,
• Hamed Achour,
• Matthijs A. van Spronsen,
• Marta E. Cañas-Ventura,
• Sander B. Roobol,
• Willem Onderwaater,
• Mirthe Bergman,
• Peter van der Tuijn,
• Gertjan van Baarle,
• Johan W. Bakker,
• Joost W. M. Frenken and
• Irene M. N. Groot

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 397–406, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.30

• size distribution of the particles. While maintaining the gas flow, the sample’s temperature was increased with a rate of 1 K per 10 s up to 550 K; at this temperature FTS takes place. This is outside the possible temperature window of scanning with our tuning fork, as explained above. Therefore, we

• were only able to scan at 430 K before (Figure 6b) and after the reaction occurred (Figure 6c). As can be seen, the surface has undergone a change due to the reaction. The particle size distribution has changed; it appears that smaller particles are no longer visible and that there is an increase in

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• delivery and biosensing. Further insights into the size and morphology of the PEG–PCL NPs were obtained through electron microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the surface structure and to conduct a quantitative size distribution analysis. The SEM images (Figure 2c) revealed that the

• surface-area-to-volume ratio, which enhances interaction with target molecules. Transmission electron microscopy was also employed further to confirm the shape and size of the nanoparticles. The TEM images confirmed that nanoparticles were spherical with a narrow size distribution, and the mean size was

Development of a mucoadhesive drug delivery system and its interaction with gastric cells

• Ahmet Baki Sahin,
• Serdar Karakurt and
• Deniz Sezlev Bilecen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 371–384, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.28

• Eudragit polymer. Particle size and zeta potential distribution The particle size distribution is an important parameter in drug delivery applications because it determines the transport across membranes. The Z-average diameters of Alg NPs and EudAlg NPs were 206.14 ± 32.31 and 219.22 ± 41.61 nm

• nanoparticles and negative charges on mucin. The increased overall size distribution due to formation of bigger aggregates can also be observed by analyzing the polydispersity index (PDI) values obtained from the DLS measurements. The PDI indicates the homogeneity of the size of the nanoparticle suspension, and

• complexes after mucin interaction. In addition to the size distribution and PDI alterations, the zeta potential of EudAlg nanoparticles shifted from 39.72 ± 6.7 to −12.13 ± 9.8 mV after interaction with mucin. The observed reduction in zeta potential is also attributed to the interaction and surrounding of

Fabrication and evaluation of BerNPs regarding the growth and development of Streptococcus mutans

• Tuyen Huu Nguyen,
• Hong Thanh Pham,
• Kieu Kim Thanh Nguyen,
• Loan Hong Ngo,
• Anh Ngoc Tuan Mai,
• Thu Hoang Anh Lam,
• Ngan Thi Kim Phan,
• Dung Tien Pham,
• Duong Thuy Hoang,
• Thuc Dong Nguyen and
• Lien Thi Xuan Truong

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 308–315, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.23

• synthesized by ASP using glycerol as a safe organic solvent, resulting in BerNPs with a narrow size distribution and an average diameter of 156 nm [12]. Additionally, the high-pressure homogenization method reduced the average size of BerNPs to approximately 72.4 nm [25]. Numerous studies showed that smaller

• recorded by observing the stained cells attached to the walls of the test tubes. FE-SEM images of (a) berberine and (b) BerNPs. (c) Histogram of particle size distribution of BerNPs. (a) UV–vis absorption spectrum of BerNPs. (b) Standard curve of pure berberine. (c) XRD patterns of pure berberine and

Preferential enrichment and extraction of laser-synthesized nanoparticles in organic phases

• Theo Fromme,
• Maximilian L. Spiekermann,
• Florian Lehmann,
• Stephan Barcikowski,
• Thomas Seidensticker and
• Sven Reichenberger

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 254–263, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.20

• glycerol carbonate and 1-nonanol for copper and iron. Zeta potential of copper nanoparticles in (a) 1-nonanol and (b) propylene carbonate obtained by LAL at 85 °C in the monophasic TMS of 1-nonanol and propylene carbonate. Size distribution and TEM images of the respective (c, d) copper and (e, f) iron

Radiosensitizing properties of dual-functionalized carbon nanostructures loaded with temozolomide

• Radmila Milenkovska,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Petre Makreski,
• Dushko Lukarski,
• Igor Stojkovski,
• Maja Simonoska Crcarevska and
• Kristina Mladenovska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 229–251, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.18

• conditions were characterized in terms of their physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties. Results and Discussion Biopharmaceutical characterization of temozolomide-loaded carbon nanostructures Loading efficacy, drug content, surface charge, and particle size distribution In the study, relatively high

• images in this study and the SEM and TEM images in [43]). In all series, a relatively unimodal particle size distribution was observed, with PDI values not higher than 0.541. In the irradiated series, the mean particle size ranged from 222 nm (I-MWCNTs-PEG6000-FA) to 347 nm (I-MWCNTs-G-PEG6000-FA-TMZ

Synthesis and the impact of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles on the viability and activity of rhizobacteria

• Bedah Rupaedah,
• Indrika Novella,
• Atiek Rostika Noviyanti,
• Diana Rakhmawaty Eddy,
• Anna Safarrida,
• Abdul Hapid,
• Zhafira Amila Haqqa,
• Suryana Suryana,
• Irwan Kurnia and
• Fathiyah Inayatirrahmi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 216–228, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.17

• . The morphology of the analyzed sample, observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at magnifications of 15,000× and 50,000× are depicted in Figure 3. Figure 3 provides a clear view of the sample demonstrating spherical shapes with a consistent particle size distribution. The SEM analysis

• reconstruction and genetic distance analysis. XRD pattern of HA standard (ICSD #157481). XRD pattern of the synthesized nHA. Morphology and particle size distribution of the sample, (a, b) SEM images at magnifications of 15,000× and 50,000×, (c) particle size distribution, and (d) 3D plot of porosity. Viability

A review of metal-organic frameworks and polymers in mixed matrix membranes for CO₂ capture

• Charlotte Skjold Qvist Christensen,
• Nicholas Hansen,
• Mahboubeh Motadayen,
• Nina Lock,
• Martin Lahn Henriksen and
• Jonathan Quinson

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 155–186, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.14

• selectivity. In contrast, inorganic membranes are rigid with small, uniform pores, offering high selectivity but only modest permeability [70]. For both membrane types, increased uniformity in pore size distribution and greater pore rigidity generally enhance selectivity [70][71][72]. Typically, inorganic

• chemical states [148]. In MOF-based MMMs, XPS can help elucidate unique chemical coordination within the membrane [143]. Physical properties such as the surface area and pore size distribution are commonly determined through Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis [121][124][125][129][130][131], where the

Clays enhanced with niobium: potential in wastewater treatment and reuse as pigment with antibacterial activity

• Silvia Jaerger,
• Patricia Appelt,
• Mario Antônio Alves da Cunha,
• Fabián Ccahuana Ayma,
• Ricardo Schneider,
• Carla Bittencourt and
• Fauze Jacó Anaissi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 141–154, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.13

• with 50 μm of diameter and gate delay of 0.5 μs. A static laser scattering (SLS) Horiba LA-960 equipment assessed the powder particle size distribution measurements using a 15 mL cuvette accessory and water as the dispersion medium. The refractive index was set to 1.640 for red and blue lines. Results

TiO₂ immobilized on 2D mordenite: effect of hydrolysis conditions on structural, textural, and optical characteristics of the nanocomposites

• Marina G. Shelyapina,
• Rosario Isidro Yocupicio-Gaxiola,
• Gleb A. Valkovsky and
• Vitalii Petranovskii

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 128–140, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.12

• around P/P0 = 0.5, and it is followed by a broad hysteresis loop. The shape of this loop mainly corresponds to bottle-shaped pores (type H2, more precisely H2b, which corresponds to a pore blocking effect but without percolation, which may also indicate a narrow size distribution of pore cavities), with

• -loaded samples. The Al 2p and O 1s XPS spectra of the MOR-L compound are given for comparison. The inset in (a) shows the decomposition of the Al 2p spectrum for Ti-W24h-C. (a, b) Nitrogen adsorption isotherms at 77 K, (c, d) pore size distribution and pore volume in calcined nanocomposites Ti-WNh-C (a

Characterization of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GP258

• Prashantkumar Siddappa Chakra,
• Aishwarya Banakar,
• Shriram Narayan Puranik,
• Vishwas Kaveeshwar,
• C. R. Ravikumar and
• Devaraja Gayathri

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 78–89, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.8

• , indicating robust colloidal stability, contrasting with the moderately negative zeta potential (−15.3 mV) reported by Selvarajan and Mohanasrinivasan [24], which shows possible variations in ZnO NP characteristics, size distribution, surface modification, and experimental conditions. Nonetheless, both

• quantify the surface electric charge of the ZnO NPs, assessing their stability. DLS measurements followed with an acquisition time of 120 s per run, providing data for the intensity-weighted size distribution. The photocatalytic activity was analyzed by studying the degradation of methylene blue in a 20

• ) EDX spectroscopy for elemental composition. (e) Zeta potential measurement. (f) DLS results showing the size distribution of ZnO NPs. (a, b) Cyclic voltammetry response of the ZnO electrode in 0.1 M KCl solution at varying scan rates, showing redox behavior and electron transfer characteristics. (c

Instance maps as an organising concept for complex experimental workflows as demonstrated for (nano)material safety research

• Benjamin Punz,
• Maja Brajnik,
• Joh Dokler,
• Jaleesia D. Amos,
• Litty Johnson,
• Katie Reilly,
• Anastasios G. Papadiamantis,
• Amaia Green Etxabe,
• Lee Walker,
• Diego S. T. Martinez,
• Steffi Friedrichs,
• Klaus M. Weltring,
• Nazende Günday-Türeli,
• Claus Svendsen,
• Christine Ogilvie Hendren,
• Mark R. Wiesner,
• Martin Himly,
• Iseult Lynch and
• Thomas E. Exner

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 57–77, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.7

Mechanistic insights into endosomal escape by sodium oleate-modified liposomes

• Ebrahim Sadaqa,
• Satrialdi,
• Fransiska Kurniawan and
• Diky Mudhakir

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1667–1685, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.131

• , and AUR-Lipo formulations. The particle sizes were 102.2 ± 3.30 nm for Unmodified-Lipo, 109.6 ± 7.65 nm for SO-Lipo, and 151.9 ± 5.88 nm for AUR-Lipo, with polydispersity indices below 0.25, indicating uniform size distribution. Endosomal escape efficiency was evaluated through confocal microscopy by

• liposomes (Unmodified-Lipo) exhibited a stable physicochemical profile, with an average particle size of 102.2 ± 3.30 nm. Their PDI of 0.239 ± 0.046 indicated a uniform and consistent size distribution, supported by a mean negative zeta potential of −4.47 ± 2.34 mV. For sodium oleate-modified liposomes (SO

• vesicles. To standardize the size distribution, the sonicated dispersion underwent five cycles of extrusion through a 100 nm polycarbonate membrane using an Avanti Mini-Extruder. The finalized liposomal formations underwent a comprehensive characterization, assessing size, PDI, and zeta potential through

Fabrication of hafnium-based nanoparticles and nanostructures using picosecond laser ablation

• Abhishek Das,
• Mangababu Akkanaboina,
• Jagannath Rathod,
• R. Sai Prasad Goud,
• Kanaka Ravi Kumar,
• Raghu C. Reddy,
• Ratheesh Ravendran,
• Katia Vutova,
• S. V. S. Nageswara Rao and
• Venugopal Rao Soma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1639–1653, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.129

• size distribution in the ranges of 5–40 nm in DW and 5–20 nm in toluene and anisole, respectively, as shown in Figure 3b, Figure 3e, and Figure 3h, respectively. The SAED patterns shown in Figure 3c,f,i indicate that the NPs were polycrystalline. The planes shown in Figure 3c for HfNPs-D were found to

• , and (c) anisole. Schematic of the NS fabrication by raster scanning the sample, resulting in LSFL and HSFL formation. FESEM image and inverse FFTs of LSFL with spatial periodicity on laser-ablated NSs in (a, b) DW, (c, d) toluene, and (e, f) anisole. FESEM image and HSFL size distribution of NSs laser

• potential material for sophisticated design patterning [66]. Conclusion The current study shows the successful single-step fabrication of HfO2 NPs and nanofibres in DW and HfC core–shell NPs with multilayered graphitic shells in toluene and anisole via LAL of Hf metal. The obtained NPs exhibit a broad size

Facile synthesis of size-tunable L-carnosine-capped silver nanoparticles and their role in metal ion sensing and catalytic degradation of p-nitrophenol

• Akash Kumar,
• Ridhima Chadha,
• Abhishek Das,
• Nandita Maiti and
• Rayavarapu Raja Gopal

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1576–1592, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.124

• of the size distribution of particles in a sample. The PDI values of ʟ-car-AgNP1, ʟ-car-AgNP2, ʟ-car-AgNP3, ʟ-car-AgNP4, and ʟ-car-AgNP5 were 0.113, 0.250, 0.299, 0.397, and 0.268, respectively (Figure 3a). A PDI value below 0.3 typically indicates a relatively narrow and well-controlled size

• distribution [27]. ʟ-Carnosine forms a monolayer around the nanoparticles, providing a consistent and uniform surface coverage. This uniformity in surface passivation contributes to the narrow size distribution of the nanoparticles. The formation of stable silver nanoparticles capped with ʟ-carnosine was

Polymer lipid hybrid nanoparticles for phytochemical delivery: challenges, progress, and future prospects

• Iqra Rahat,
• Pooja Yadav,
• Aditi Singhal,
• Mohammad Fareed,
• Jaganathan Raja Purushothaman,
• Mohammed Aslam,
• Raju Balaji,
• Sonali Patil-Shinde and
• Md. Rizwanullah

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1473–1497, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.118

Green synthesis of carbon dot structures from Rheum Ribes and Schottky diode fabrication

• Muhammed Taha Durmus and
• Ebru Bozkurt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 1369–1375, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.110

• that the CDs have a monodisperse distribution and a spherical structure (Figure 2a) [16]. Additionally, ImageJ software was used to analyze the size distribution of CDs. Most of the CDs were in the range of 1.0–2.5 nm with an average size of 1.5 nm (Figure 2b). The XRD pattern of the prepared CDs is

• the Schottky diode based on CDs. (a) TEM image, (b) size distribution, (c) XRD pattern, (d) FTIR spectrum, (e) XPS spectrum, and (f) Raman spectrum of the CDs. UV–vis absorption and fluorescence spectra of the CDs (λexc = 320 nm). (a) Fluorescence and (b) normalized fluorescence spectra of the CDs at