Safe and sustainable by design with ML/AI: A transformative approach to advancing nanotechnology

• Georgia Melagraki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 176–185, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.11

• networks, where standardized information on nanomaterial properties and toxicity profiles can be used to train increasingly robust ML models. Overall, the synergy between the SSbD concept, advanced ML/AI algorithms, and comprehensive regulatory directives fosters a future-oriented model of nanotechnology

• and sustainability considerations into nanomaterial development. Need for harmonized testing protocols Establishing standardized and reproducible methodologies for characterizing nanomaterial properties – such as size distribution, surface chemistry, and toxicity profiles – is essential. A unified

• environmental and climate data with information on the production, release, exposure, and toxicity of materials with many complex descriptors [38]. (2) Big data analytics: Advanced algorithms can carefully analyse high-dimensional datasets, identifying patterns between physicochemical characteristics of ENMs

From shield to spear: Charge-reversible nanocarriers in overcoming cancer therapy barriers

• Madhuri Yeduvaka,
• Pooja Mittal,
• Ameer Boyalakuntla,
• Usman Bee Shaik,
• Himanshu Sharma,
• Thakur Gurjeet Singh,
• Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula and
• Lakshmi Vineela Nalla

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 159–175, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.10

• 16.8% of all deaths and 30.3% of premature mortality due to noncommunicable diseases, and continues to be one of the leading causes of death worldwide despite medical progress. Conventional treatment methods such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy often face challenges such as systemic toxicity

• the crucial role of surface charge in cellular uptake and intracellular transport, highlighting recent advances that demonstrate improved targeting, reduced systemic toxicity, enhanced cellular internalisation, and the potential for integrated approaches, including combination therapies and

• biodistribution while protecting fragile biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids [11]. Through targeted and sustained release, these systems enhance therapeutic efficacy, prolong circulation, and reduce systemic toxicity compared to conventional formulations [12][13]. As illustrated in Figure 1

Influence of surface characteristics on the in vitro stability and cell uptake of nanoliposomes for brain delivery

• Dushko Shalabalija,
• Ljubica Mihailova,
• Nikola Geskovski,
• Andreas Zimmer,
• Otmar Geiss,
• Sabrina Gioria,
• Diletta Scaccabarozzi and
• Marija Glavas Dodov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 139–158, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.9

• well known that incorporating AC into NLs improves their biological distribution, reduces macrophage uptake, and lowers free AC concentrations, thus decreasing systemic toxicity. Additionally, modifying the composition and surface properties of NLs can enhance their passage through the blood–brain

• stability, toxicity, and therapeutic potential of nanodelivery systems, thus improving the translation of study results to real biological systems. In this direction, some of the prerequisites for establishing a relevant in vitro model for cell uptake studies include precise control over factors like

Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• third most prevalent type of cancer in the world. R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) is a phycobiliprotein isolated from red algae such as Solieria filiformis, with fluorescent properties, photodynamic activity and potential for cancer treatment. However, 5-FU toxicity promotes several side effects and R-PE low

• intratumor accumulation with higher cellular internalization. In addition, the use of immunoliposomes contributes to reducing systemic toxicity, since their delivery is concentrated in the tumor microenvironment, avoiding exposure of healthy tissues [8]. In colorectal cancer, the epidermal growth factor

• evaluated, and the systems were thoroughly characterized. Finally, in vitro experiments in a CRC cell line were conducted for the evaluation of cytotoxicity, photo toxicity, and uptake. Some studies have sought to demonstrate that dual-drug nanosystems can result in synergistic antitumor effects or reduce

Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings – a comprehensive review

• Giuseppe Cesare Lama,
• Marino Lavorgna,
• Letizia Verdolotti,
• Federica Recupido,
• Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore and
• Bharat Bhushan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 63–96, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.6

• organogel, composed of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), ethyl lactate (EL), and deferoxamine B (DFO), for the simultaneous removal of iron corrosion and aged acrylic coatings from historical metal artefacts. This gel is made of bio-based, biodegradable, and low-toxicity materials, aligned with Green Chemistry

• materials and low-toxicity systems, while the other studies [78][80] approach it only indirectly, through solvent-free processing or durability improvements rather than fully closed life-cycle considerations. Textile substrates Just like wood, heritage textile materials are organic substrates since they are

Internal 3D temperature mapping in biological systems using ratiometric light-sheet imaging and lipid-coated upconversion nanothermometers

• Dannareli Barron-Ortiz,
• Enric Pérez-Parets,
• Rubén D. Cadena-Nava,
• Emilio J. Gualda,
• Jacob Licea-Rodríguez,
• Juan Hernández-Cordero,
• Pablo Loza-Álvarez and
• Israel Rocha-Mendoza

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2306–2316, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.159

• measure the internal temperature within fixed C. elegans nematodes. The worms were fed with the UCNPs@lipids solution at a 1 mg·mL−1 concentration, consistent with imaging and toxicity studies [56]. Figure 5 illustrates the workflow for obtaining temperature maps. The process begins with identifying the

Improving magnetic properties of Mn- and Zn-doped core–shell iron oxide nanoparticles by tuning their size

• Dounia Louaguef,
• Ghouti Medjahdi,
• Sébastien Diliberto,
• Klaus M. Seemann,
• Thomas Gries,
• Joelle Bizeau,
• Damien Mertz,
• Eric Gaffet and
• Halima Alem

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2285–2295, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.157

• ), have been extensively studied due to their low toxicity, biocompatibility, and ease of synthesis [5]. However, SPIONs face several challenges related to their relatively low saturation magnetization (Ms) and specific loss power (SLP), which limit their effectiveness in hyperthermia applications

Optical bio/chemical sensors for vitamin B₁₂ analysis in food and pharmaceuticals: state of the art, challenges, and future outlooks

• Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi and
• Zeynep Altintas

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2207–2244, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.153

Missing links in nanomaterials research impacting productivity and perceptions

• Santosh K. Tiwari and
• Nannan Wang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2168–2176, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.149

• standardized toxicity assessment, environmental fate modeling, and lifecycle analysis to enable safe and scalable commercialization. (2) Strengthen industry engagement through public–private partnerships that integrate advanced nanomaterials such as graphene, MXenes, nanoporous catalysts, and quantum dots into

Microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes: assessment, risks, and sustainable remediation strategies

• Sameeksha Rawat,
• S. M. Tauseef and
• Madhuben Sharma

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2144–2167, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.148

• its behavior in distant, elevated lake systems such as the Himalayas. The most important areas to focus with regard to the ecotoxicological impact of microplastics are the bioaccumulation of microplastics in the Himalayan food web, plasticizer toxicity, and long-term potential health and ecological

• ”, “groundwater contamination”, “plastic toxicity”, “MP remediation technologies”, “bioremediation”, “SDG 6”, and “ecological risk”. Literature search was restricted to articles published in the period of 2010–2025. Peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and technical reports published in the English

• in Himalayan groundwater [30]. Our addition of groundwater vulnerability modeling and toxicity pathways to this contributes by incorporating MPs into groundwater threat frameworks, providing a new contribution in linking solid plastic pollution with hydrological threats in vulnerable highland

Quality by design optimization of microemulsions for topical delivery of Passiflora setacea seed oil

• Daniel T. Pereira,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Danielle T. Freire,
• Dayanne L. Porto,
• Cícero F. S. Aragão,
• Myla L. de Souza,
• Guilherme R. S. de Araujo,
• Ana Maria Costa,
• Wógenes N. Oliveira,
• Anne Sapin-Minet,
• Éverton N. Alencar and
• Eryvaldo Sócrates T. Egito

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2116–2131, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.146

• , the ME preserved mitochondrial activity at concentrations up to 0.5 mg/mL in HUVEC and 2 mg/mL in RAW 264.7 cells after 48 h. Toxicity observed at higher concentrations was attributed to increased surfactant content, highlighting the importance of formulation optimization. Despite these promising

Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: the need for standardisation

• Michał Bartkowski,
• Francesco Calzaferri and
• Silvia Giordani

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2092–2104, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.144

• regarding toxicity and regulatory hurdles remain major barriers to clinical translation. Current research is therefore focused on standardizing CNM synthesis and characterisation methods, minimizing toxicity, and facilitating regulatory approval. Despite these challenges, CNMs hold substantial promise for

• nanomaterials (CNMs) have been largely developed as nanocarriers for drug delivery due to their biocompatibility, high surface area, tuneable physicochemical properties, and targeting capabilities [13][14]. However, CNMs also present a subset of challenges, including toxicity concerns, expensive and time

• , laser ablation, or electrochemical techniques, among others. These CNMs must then be thoroughly characterised to confirm their structural and physicochemical properties, including size, shape, charge, surface functionality, stability, and potential toxicity. Following characterisation, anticancer

Beyond the shell: exploring polymer–lipid interfaces in core–shell nanofibers to carry hyaluronic acid and β-caryophyllene

• Aline Tavares da Silva Barreto,
• Francisco Alexandrino-Júnior,
• Bráulio Soares Arcanjo,
• Paulo Henrique de Souza Picciani and
• Kattya Gyselle de Holanda e Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 2015–2033, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.139

• degradation, and moderate hydrophilicity, but also biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and non-carcinogenicity [5]. Adhering to these critical quality requirements for biomedical products, polylactic acid (PLA) was selected for nanofiber production. This biotechnologically derived aliphatic polyester is a rigid

Targeting the vector of arboviruses Aedes aegypti with nanoemulsions based on essential oils: a review with focus on larvicidal and repellent properties

• Laryssa Ferreira do Nascimento Silva,
• Douglas Dourado,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros,
• Mariana Alice Gonzaga Gabú,
• Maria Cecilia Queiroga dos Santos,
• Daiane Rodrigues dos Santos,
• Mylena Lemos dos Santos,
• Gabriel Bezerra Faierstein,
• Rosângela Maria Rodrigues Barbosa and
• Fabio Rocha Formiga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1894–1913, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.132

• insecticides, ovicides, pupicides, oviposition deterrents, and repellents [25][26]. The main advantages include low toxicity, biodegradability, and action in multiple locations due to the variety of compounds [12][19]. On the other hand, essential oils in their natural form are not stable under environmental

• superior efficacy compared to commercial emulsions, along with lower toxicity to non-target organisms and improved environmental compatibility [103]. Similarly, Shaari et al. (2021) developed palm-oil-based nanoemulsions containing deltamethrin, which exhibited enhanced insecticidal performance against Ae

• µg/mL at 144 hours. The toxicity of NE in Apis mellifera was evaluated, proving that the formulated nanoemulsion did not present toxicity for this non-target species. Viana et al. (2023) explored the larvicidal activity of a nanoemulsion formulated with an essential oil extracted from the leaves of

On the road to sustainability – application of metallic nanoparticles obtained by green synthesis in dentistry: a scoping review

• Lorena Pinheiro Vasconcelos Silva,
• Joice Catiane Soares Martins,
• Israel Luís Carvalho Diniz,
• Júlio Abreu Miranda,
• Danilo Rodrigues de Souza,
• Éverton do Nascimento Alencar,
• Moan Jéfter Fernandes Costa and
• Pedro Henrique Sette-de-Souza

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1851–1862, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.128

• demonstrated that these nanoparticles exhibit low toxicity, effectiveness against antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, and strong colloidal stability, ensuring long-term dispersion [26][27]. Additionally, they exhibit antioxidant activity and selective cytotoxic effects on tumor cells, including oral cancer

Current status of using adsorbent nanomaterials for removing microplastics from water supply systems: a mini review

• Nguyen Thi Nhan and
• Tran Le Luu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1837–1850, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.127

• , leading to cellular damage [111]. According to Thirunavukkarasu et al., the interactions between these nanomaterials and other contaminants are not fully understood. While some studies suggest that different synthesis methods can reduce toxicity, they still pose a significant threat to end-users [112

• nanomaterials. Numerous adverse health effects, such as inflammation, gastrointestinal disorders, cellular toxicity, and genetic damage, are linked to nanomaterial accumulation, as shown in many studies [115]. Furthermore, the application of biosolids containing nanomaterials to agricultural soils can lead to

• , and decomposition at the end of use. The system boundaries are defined to capture the full life cycle, consisting of energy consumption, carbon emissions, and residual toxicity [113]. However, until now, in-depth LCAs conducted on nanomaterials are still relatively limited [117]. In addition, advances

Phytol-loaded soybean oil nanoemulsion as a promising alternative against Leishmania amazonensis

• Victória Louise Pinto Freire,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Johny W. de Freitas Oliveira,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Marcelo de Souza-Silva,
• Thayse Silva Medeiros and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva Junior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1826–1836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.126

• ), amphotericin B, miltefosine, and paromomycin. Although these drugs are effective, their use is often limited by serious adverse effects such as cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, pancreatic toxicity, and teratogenicity. Moreover, resistance to antileishmanial agents, particularly pentavalent

• diterpenes exhibit promising antileishmanial activity while displaying low toxicity to host cells [13][14][15]. One such compound is a phytol, a highly lipophilic, acyclic monounsaturated diterpene alcohol derived from chlorophyll metabolism in plants [16], and has demonstrated promising antileishmanial

• toxicity to host cells – especially intracellular amastigote forms [44]. Previous studies have shown that fibroblasts can act as alternative host cells and have been used to evaluate cytotoxic activity against Leishmania spp. in contexts involving epithelial cells and fibroblasts [45]. In addition, reviews

Exploring the potential of polymers: advancements in oral nanocarrier technology

• Rousilândia de Araujo Silva,
• Igor Eduardo Silva Arruda,
• Luise Lopes Chaves,
• Mônica Felts de La Roca Soares and
• Jose Lamartine Soares Sobrinho

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1751–1793, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.122

• encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs [55]. Chitosan, a natural polymer, predominantly forms NPs via ionic gelation, where interactions with multivalent counterions create stable polymeric networks without the use of organic solvents, thereby ensuring high biocompatibility and minimal toxicity. Similarly, alginate

• other and produced through polymerization reactions such as addition, condensation, ring-opening polymerization, emulsion, precipitation, and others [57]. Monomers determine the decomposition products of polymers in the body and, consequently, their toxicity and biocompatibility. This is why synthesis

• pathway offers an alternative to first-pass metabolism and helps reduce toxicity. Moreover, NPs using this route are intercepted by immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells, making them suitable for oral vaccine administration (see Table 2) by promoting mucosal immunity activation [16][76

Advances of aptamers in esophageal cancer diagnosis, treatment and drug delivery

• Yang Fei,
• Hui Xu,
• Chunwei Zhang,
• Jingjing Wang and
• Yong Jin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1734–1750, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.121

• cells, slow down tumor growth and metastasis, and had no obvious toxicity to human normal esophageal epithelial cells. Cluster analysis showed that the mechanism of action of peptide 58 may be closely related to the inhibition of ESCC cell metabolism. However, pharmacokinetic data on peptide 58 remain

• threshold (30–50 kDa), thereby prolonging circulation half-life and enhancing stability. These strategies collectively improve drug bioavailability while reducing off-target toxicity, offering versatile solutions for aptamer applications in precision medicine. The following sections give a summary of the

• significantly inhibited ESCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by inducing apoptosis, regulating cell cycle and inhibiting epithelial–mesenchymal transition; also it exhibited no significant toxicity to heart, liver, or other major organs. The safety and effectiveness of this four-way connected

Multifunctional anionic nanoemulsion with linseed oil and lecithin: a preliminary approach for dry eye disease

• Niédja Fittipaldi Vasconcelos,
• Almerinda Agrelli,
• Rayane Cristine Santos da Silva,
• Carina Lucena Mendes-Marques,
• Isabel Renata de Souza Arruda,
• Priscilla Stela Santana de Oliveira,
• Mércia Liane de Oliveira and
• Giovanna Machado

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1711–1733, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.120

• partly increasing due to the widespread use of screens and computers [5]. Systemic administration of medications for treating ocular diseases requires high doses to achieve therapeutic effects, which can increase the risk of toxicity [6]. Several barriers limit the penetration of ocular medications, such

• acids and glycerol. Following lipolysis, glycerol decomposes into acrolein, a compound known for its toxicity to humans, as well as the breakdown of unsaturated fatty acid chains. The second mass loss event (~5.8%) occurs between 539 and 600 °C and is attributed to the decomposition of saturated fatty

Prospects of nanotechnology and natural products for cancer and immunotherapy

• Jan Filipe Andrade Santos,
• Marcela Bernardes Brasileiro,
• Pamela Danielle Cavalcante Barreto,
• Ligiane Aranha Rocha and
• José Adão Carvalho Nascimento Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1644–1667, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.116

• , and cell-based therapies, including chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells [9]. However, these therapies face limitations, including systemic toxicity, high cost, variable clinical responses, and tumor resistance, often associated with the genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity of tumors [10][11][12

• biological environments, potential immunogenicity, scalability of manufacturing processes, and the need for comprehensive long-term toxicity studies [20][21]. Overcoming biological barriers, such as penetration through the dense tumor extracellular matrix, also remains a major hurdle [19]. Nevertheless

• factors such as bioavailability and stability, while also reducing toxicity [27]. China (CN) leads the ranking of published inventions with 14 documents, followed by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WO), the Republic of Korea (KR), and the United States of America (USA), each with one patent

Venom-loaded cationic-functionalized poly(lactic acid) nanoparticles for serum production against Tityus serrulatus scorpion

• Philippe de Castro Mesquita,
• Karla Samara Rocha Soares,
• Manoela Torres-Rêgo,
• Emanuell dos Santos-Silva,
• Mariana Farias Alves-Silva,
• Alianda Maira Cornélio,
• Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa and
• Arnóbio Antônio da Silva-Júnior

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1633–1643, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.115

• induce long-lasting protective immunity through vaccination [12][13]. However, reported incidences of toxicity and side effects of aluminum have raised concerns regarding their safety in childhood vaccines [13]. Consequently, there is a growing need for alternative immunization strategies that not only

• barriers, their biocompatibility, and low toxicity [18]. Their manipulation at the nanoscale changes specific surface properties, possibly improving the ability to cross biological barriers targeting the affected tissues [18][19]. In this context, nanoparticle controlled release based on biodegradable

Nanotechnology-based approaches for the removal of microplastics from wastewater: a comprehensive review

• Nayanathara O Sanjeev,
• Manjunath Singanodi Vallabha and
• Rebekah Rubidha Lisha Rabi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1607–1632, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.114

• stress, immune system activation, developmental and reproductive toxicity, and damage to the nervous system [8]. MPs possess high specific area and strong adsorption capacity, enabling them to attract pollutants from the environment. They can accumulate harmful substances such as polycyclic aromatic

• oxidative stress, histological damage in vital organs, and overall impaired fish health, highlighting their toxic impact on aquatic ecosystems. NPs and MPs negatively impact marine organisms, but their toxicity toward marine bacteria remain less understood. In a study performed by Sun et al. [49], it was

• MPs from water. Its natural abundance, low toxicity, and biodegradability position it as sustainable option for water treatment applications [129][130]. Another challenge that arises is the precise detection and characterization of MPs. Commonly employed techniques for MPs identification include

Dendrimer-modified carbon nanotubes for the removal and recovery of heavy metal ions from water

• Thao Quynh Ngan Tran,
• Huu Trung Nguyen,
• Subodh Kumar and
• Xuan Thang Cao

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1522–1532, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.107

• of water bodies with heavy metal ions poses a significant threat to the environment and human health due to their non-degradable nature and toxicity. Metal-oriented industries such as battery manufacturing, mining, electroplating, and metal recycling are growing day by day, and so are the chances of

Cross-reactivities in conjugation reactions involving iron oxide nanoparticles

• Shoronia N. Cross,
• Katalin V. Korpany,
• Hanine Zakaria and
• Amy Szuchmacher Blum

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1504–1521, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.106

• ]. Magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (NPs), in particular, have been explored for these applications, due to their low toxicity, biocompatibility, and high saturation magnetization [4]. These applications require reliable and controlled surface functionalization to impart desired functionality, such as tissue