Soft materials nanoarchitectonics: liquid crystals, polymers, gels, biomaterials, and others

• Katsuhiko Ariga

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1025–1067, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.77

• thicknesses. At low temperatures, the molecular nanowires coalesce, whereas, at high temperatures, the nanowires separate to form interconnected networks. The compression of the thin-film structure on the water surface resulted in the transformation of the network into a compact and highly uniform monolayer

• dispersed on water and formed floating domains at the air–water interface in the absence of applied pressure. The aggregates were constituted by small molecular units, with their alkyl chains oriented towards the air phase. Upon compression, the domains merged to form a coherent monolayer. The monolayer was

• benzoquinone to the hydroquinone, which occurs by the acceptance of two electrons and two protons. The compounds in use do not react with water due to their weak redox properties, rendering them stable redox agents at room temperature. The redox potential of the proton coupling electron transfer reaction

Multifunctional properties of bio-poly(butylene succinate) reinforced with multiwalled carbon nanotubes

• Volodymyr Krasinskyi,
• Krzysztof Bajer,
• Ludmila Dulebova,
• Nickolas Polychronopoulos,
• Oksana Krasinska and
• Daniel Kaczor

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1014–1024, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.76

• and water absorption of PBS; however, it significantly influences surface wettability and tribological properties (Table 3). The dynamic and static coefficients of friction for the PBS/CNT_0.5 nanocomposite are 1.7 and 1.3–1.7 times lower, respectively, than those of the pure PBS. The surface

• water absorption (n) was measured following ISO 62:2008 “Plastics – Determination of Water Absorption”, using film samples of a square shape (50 × 50 mm2) with a thickness of 350 µm. The surface tension or wettability (σ) of the films was measured according to ISO 8296:2003 “Plastics – Film and Sheeting

A calix[4]arene-based supramolecular nanoassembly targeting cancer cells and triggering the release of nitric oxide with green light

• Cristina Parisi,
• Loredana Ferreri,
• Tassia J. Martins,
• Francesca Laneri,
• Samantha Sollima,
• Antonina Azzolina,
• Antonella Cusimano,
• Nicola D’Antona,
• Grazia M. L. Consoli and
• Salvatore Sortino

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1003–1013, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.75

• one amino-nitrobenzofurazan as a fluorescent labelling unit at the opposite sides of the calixarene molecular scaffold. Due to its amphiphilic character, this compound is well soluble in water, forming supramolecular assemblies that are ca. 170 nm in diameter. The nanoassembly selectively targets

• , characterized by the presence of a cavity with remarkable hosting properties and synthetic versatility [1][2][3][4][5]. Water soluble calixarenes can be obtained by the introduction of appropriate hydrophilic moieties in the calixarene molecular scaffold, leading to a good biocompatibility and low

• immunogenicity and paving the way for a variety of applications in the biomedical field [1][6][7][8][9]. Due to their amphiphilic character, calix[n]arene derivatives can self-assemble in water medium, leading to nanoaggregates exhibiting much better hosting performances than the single monomers [10]. Aggregates

Time-resolved probing of laser-induced nanostructuring processes in liquids

• Maximilian Spellauge,
• David Redka,
• Mianzhen Mo,
• Changyong Song,
• Heinz Paul Huber and
• Anton Plech

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 968–1002, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.74

• early-time structural relaxation and chemical bond dynamics in laser-induced ionization of liquid water. In the third chapter “Nanoparticle excitation in an ensemble and energy exchange with medium”, an approach is shown on how reactions of both the excited NPs as well as the interaction with the

• studying structural dynamics in ionized liquid water. Electrons and X-rays can both be used to structurally characterize the sample material and are often combined to best understand a sample. Electrons are sensitive to the electrostatic potential of the object and hence can probe both electrons and nuclei

• , whereas X-rays predominantly interact with the electron ingredient of the object. Furthermore, for samples such as liquid water, electron scattering probes both O–O and O–H intermolecular bonds, while X-ray scattering is specifically sensitive to the O–O bond distance [88]. However, time-resolved liquid

Shape, membrane morphology, and morphodynamic response of metabolically active human mitochondria revealed by scanning ion conductance microscopy

• Eric Lieberwirth,
• Anja Schaeper,
• Regina Lange,
• Ingo Barke,
• Simone Baltrusch and
• Sylvia Speller

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 951–967, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.73

• the action of the fixative, formaldehyde, which removes water from the mitochondria, causing shrinkage [38][39]. Morphodynamics The edge memory effect is a phenomenon closely tied to the morphodynamics of mitochondria and serves as an indicator of their viability. This effect does not manifest in

• microtubule. Nanopipette, mitochondrion, and microtubule have negative ζ-potentials. In a physiological medium, a cation layer forms on the surface (its hydration shell is represented by the water molecules). These cations on the glass of the pipette move through the pipette electrode into the pipette. A

Tendency in tip polarity changes in non-contact atomic force microscopy imaging on a fluorite surface

• Bob Kyeyune,
• Philipp Rahe and
• Michael Reichling

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 944–950, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.72

• . This particularly concerns the transfer of surface species to the tip when the tip is subject to intentional or unintentional contact with the surface. Furthermore, ambient species like native oxides, hydrogen ions, or residual water can adsorb on the tip apex during scanning. Additionally, the

Synthesis of biowaste-derived carbon-dot-mediated silver nanoparticles and the evaluation of electrochemical properties for supercapacitor electrodes

• Navya Kumari Tenkayala,
• Chandan Kumar Maity,
• Md Moniruzzaman and
• Subramani Devaraju

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 933–943, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.71

• water stability. The combination of EDLC-type CDs with pseudocapacitive AgNPs affords superior capacitive performance and stability, which are important for supercapacitor electrodes. The overall methodology along with the optical and electrochemical charge-storing performance have been schematically

• -CDs) For the synthesis of PG-CDs, 100 g of Pongamia pinnata leaves powder was taken into 1 L of water and stirred for 15 min at 60 °C on a magnetic stirrer. Procedures for the preparation of Pongamia pinnata leaves powder are discussed in Supporting Information File 1, section S1. Then, it was

• -CDs-AgNPs) The method for synthesizing AgNPs employing PG-CDs as both the reducing and stabilizing agents is as follows. PG-CDs-AgNPs were synthesized by adding the PG-CDs solution to 1 mM AgNO3 in 1:10 V/V ratio in 100 mL of distilled water. The reaction was kept at room temperature undisturbed. The

Characterization of ion track-etched conical nanopores in thermal and PECVD SiO₂ using small angle X-ray scattering

• Shankar Dutt,
• Rudradeep Chakraborty,
• Christian Notthoff,
• Pablo Mota-Santiago,
• Christina Trautmann and
• Patrick Kluth

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 899–909, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.68

• durations. The etching process was stopped by removing samples from the etchant followed by three successive rinses in de-ionized water, each lasting 30 s, after which the samples were air dried. The scanning electron microscopy images of the nanopores were obtained using a FEI Verios 460 microscope. For

Heat-induced transformation of nickel-coated polycrystalline diamond film studied in situ by XPS and NEXAFS

• Olga V. Sedelnikova,
• Yuliya V. Fedoseeva,
• Dmitriy V. Gorodetskiy,
• Yuri N. Palyanov,
• Elena V. Shlyakhova,
• Eugene A. Maksimovskiy,
• Anna A. Makarova,
• Lyubov G. Bulusheva and
• Aleksandr V. Okotrub

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 887–898, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.67

• 68.1 eV corresponds to the oxidized states of nickel (Ni–O). The appearance of these states may be due to the interaction of nickel with residual water in the vacuum chamber or with oxygen desorbed from the silicon substrate during annealing [47]. The low-energy doublet with the Ni 3p3/2 component at

Insights into the electronic and atomic structures of cerium oxide-based ultrathin films and nanostructures using high-brilliance light sources

• Paola Luches and
• Federico Boscherini

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 860–871, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.65

• methods [30][31][32]. Initial studies were performed by exposing the surface of interest to the chosen molecule at UHV-compatible pressures. The interaction between cerium oxide and, for example, CO [21][33], SO2 [34], methanol [32], ethanol [35], and water [36] have been considered. The higher energy

• addition of water facilitating the production of ethanol [57]. Given the high penetration depth of hard X-rays in materials, XAS in the hard X-ray range is much easier than XPS to be carried out under ambient pressure conditions; it provided valuable insight into the working principles of ceria-based

• XANES and gas chromatography was employed to correlate in real time the changes of the chemical state of Cu, Fe, and Ce cations with oxygen vacancy and water formation during thermal treatments in hydrogen at ambient pressure [58]. The pure ceria film, in the Ce4+ oxidation state with a dominant Ce L3

Synchrotron X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of sodium adsorption on vertically arranged MoS₂ layers coated with pyrolytic carbon

• Alexander V. Okotrub,
• Anastasiya D. Fedorenko,
• Anna A. Makarova,
• Veronica S. Sulyaeva,
• Yuliya V. Fedoseeva and
• Lyubov G. Bulusheva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 847–859, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.64

• an aqueous solution of iron chloride (30 wt %) for 2 h to dissolve the copper foil. The remaining free PyC film was washed twice in dilute HCl (10 wt %) and then in deionized water until neutral pH was reached. The floating PyC film was trapped either on bare or MoS2-covered SiO2/Si substrates and

Facile one-step radio frequency magnetron sputtering of Ni/NiO on stainless steel for an efficient electrode for hydrogen evolution reaction

• Ha Huu Do,
• Khac Binh Nguyen,
• Phuong N. Nguyen and
• Hoai Phuong Pham

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 837–846, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.63

• operation. The high efficiency is attributed to the collaborative work of the NiO and Ni metal components and the good electrical conductivity of SS, which is advantageous for dissociative adsorption of water molecules, recombination of hydrogen atoms, and improvement of electronic/ionic motion. This work

• may introduce a facile and eco-friendly strategy for fabricating noble metal-free, efficient nanomaterials for electrocatalytic HER. Keywords: electrocatalysts; magnetron sputtering; nickel; nickel oxide; water electrolysis; Introduction The world is facing a critical challenge through the

• increasing consumption of fossil fuels, causing CO2 emissions and resulting in climate change [1]. Hydropower can be harnessed to provide sustainable energy for future generations because there are no harmful emissions with only water vapor as a byproduct [2][3][4]. Also, hydropower offers better energy

Synthesis and magnetic transitions of rare-earth-free Fe–Mn–Ni–Si-based compositionally complex alloys at bulk and nanoscale

• Shabbir Tahir,
• Tatiana Smoliarova,
• Carlos Doñate-Buendía,
• Michael Farle,
• Natalia Shkodich and
• Bilal Gökce

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 823–836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.62

• powder was compressed at 100 MPa to produce cylindrical pellets of 10 mm in diameter and 2 mm in thickness (middle panel, Figure 1b). Finally, the samples underwent heat treatment in a near-vacuum environment (down to 10 mbar) at 600 °C for seven days, followed by rapid quenching in water. This procedure

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• graphene nanosheets in water-intercalated AB bilayer graphene structures. A layer of water molecules significantly decreases the intersheet van der Waals force. A novel hydrogel of graphene oxide–silica gel–zinc hydroxide (GO-SG-ZH) is experimentally synthesized to demonstrate the advantages of hydrated

• hydrogel structure in comparison with dry powder structure. The synthesis of graphene-based hydrogels is a green chemistry approach to attain extraordinary properties of graphene-based nanostructures. Analytical characterizations exhibited moisture contents, water evaporation rates, three-dimensional

• advance nanoscale properties and nanotechnology applications. Keywords: antibacterial coating; bioinspired hydration; density functional theory; graphene-based hydrogel; supramolecular structure; Introduction Biological cells are assemblies of biomolecules that are hydrated with water molecules. The

Morphology and properties of pyrite nanoparticles obtained by pulsed laser ablation in liquid and thin films for photodetection

• Akshana Parameswaran Sreekala,
• Bindu Krishnan,
• Rene Fabian Cienfuegos Pelaes,
• David Avellaneda Avellaneda,
• Josué Amílcar Aguilar-Martínez and
• Sadasivan Shaji

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 785–805, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.60

• structures synthesized in aqueous solutions by chemical methods. The diverse range of observed pyrite morphologies highlights the influence of synthesis conditions on the final crystal shape [2]. In another study, pyrite nanoparticles (FeS2) were synthesized in deionized water with and without the assistance

• cubic, tetrakaidecahedron, hollow sphere, and rod-like have been reported for different phases of FeS2 samples prepared in water by single-step hydrothermal process [2]. The transition from spherical to hollow spheres composed of rod-like structures was associated with the conversion of the marcasite

• shapes in FAC, FMET, and FET are observed. A similar effect was observed in studies of Cu NPs, where spherical shapes were seen in deionized water, ethanol, and methanol, while rod-like morphologies were observed when methanol was used as the solvent [71]. Therefore, the solvent properties and their

Changes of structural, magnetic and spectroscopic properties of microencapsulated iron sucrose nanoparticles in saline

• Sabina Lewińska,
• Pavlo Aleshkevych,
• Roman Minikayev,
• Anna Bajorek,
• Mateusz Dulski,
• Krystian Prusik,
• Tomasz Wojciechowski and
• Anna Ślawska-Waniewska

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 762–784, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.59

• structure vanished. In the TEM dark-field images, the metallic cores were not stated, which suggests that observed nanoscale structures represent post-dissolution residues such as water-insoluble SiO2 or cellulose. The lack of core–shell structures in TEM images taken from FST does not indicate their total

• the obtained pattern agrees well with the literature [21][22]. There are no changes in these lines between both samples which is associated to the fact that cellulose interacts with water but is insoluble in it. It was expected that lines related to SiO2 [23][24] for both samples, and to sucrose [4][6

• is water insoluble; however, it is slowly dissolved in the solution of sodium chloride, which was registered in the carried out XPS studies. Also, the dissolution process turned out to be not without significance for the concentration of Na ions, whose level increased. It is an effect of salt

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• part was placed in a water bath at 56 °C for 30 min, while the other part was left untreated. After heat inactivation, FCS was stored at −20 °C until use. LNP production LNPs were prepared via microfluidics mixing, using a Nanoassemblr Benchtop device (Precision Nanosystems). In short, D-Lin-MC3-DMA

• Analytical, UK). The zeta potential of LNPs was measured using a Zetasizer Nano Z (Malvern Panalytical). Before analysis, LNP stocks were diluted 1:20 in ultrapure water. LNP uptake Cells were seeded in 48-well plates the day prior to the uptake experiment at 2 × 104 cells/well. The plates were pre-coated

Synthesis of a multicomponent cellulose-based adsorbent for tetracycline removal from aquaculture water

• Uyen Bao Tran,
• Ngoc Thanh Vo-Tran,
• Khai The Truong,
• Dat Anh Nguyen,
• Quang Nhat Tran,
• Huu-Quang Nguyen,
• Jaebeom Lee and
• Hai Son Truong-Lam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 728–739, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.56

• effective adsorbent for the removal of average 70% TC antibiotic residues, particularly oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, TC, and doxycycline. Keywords: adsorption; aquaculture water; removal efficiency; response surface methodology; tetracycline antibiotic; Introduction The aquaculture industry plays a

• substantial economic losses. Nowadays, various methods, including adsorption, biological processing, photocatalysis, and electrochemical methods, have been used to remove antibiotics from contaminated water. However, these conventional treatment methods are restricted by costs, prolonged treatment durations

• , low adsorption efficiency, water matrices, and secondary pollutant formation, limiting their overall efficiency. A promising method for tackling tetracycline antibiotics involves membrane technologies such as osmosis membrane technology [6][7]. However, this approach presents significant upfront

Efficiency of single-pulse laser fragmentation of organic nutraceutical dispersions in a circular jet flow-through reactor

• Tina Friedenauer,
• Maximilian Spellauge,
• Alexander Sommereyns,
• Verena Labenski,
• Tuba Esatbeyoglu,
• Christoph Rehbock,
• Heinz P. Huber and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 711–727, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.55

• phthalocyanines (VOPc and CuPc) in deionized water and other pure solvents but also influences the size and crystal phase via the chosen laser parameters [21][33]. Furthermore, spectroscopic analyses successfully demonstrated that an extinction enhancement occurs with increasing irradiation time and higher

• Discussion To evaluate the laser fragmentation efficiency in the CJ setup, the nutraceuticals curcumin and CBD (Figure 1) were dispersed at different concentrations (0.01 to 1.0 wt %) in deionized water and homogenized by ultrasonication. The MP-LFL yield of SMPs and NPs was quantified by the extinction

• production of ROS are also conceivable. Even though the laser intensities applied at the jet’s entrance (ca. 3·1010 W·cm−2) are one order of magnitude below the irradiance threshold range for the optical breakdown of water (i.e., 4.5·1011 W·cm−2 at 30 ps, 1064 nm [59]), it is difficult to pinpoint to which

Colloidal few layered graphene–tannic acid preserves the biocompatibility of periodontal ligament cells

• Teissir Ben Ammar,
• Naji Kharouf,
• Dominique Vautier,
• Housseinou Ba,
• Nivedita Sudheer,
• Philippe Lavalle and
• Vincent Ball

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.51

• resazurin cell viability assay kit (Alamar Blue) was sourced from Biotium (Fremont, CA, USA). Other reagents and solvents were procured from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). Deionized water used throughout this work was obtained using a Milli-Q water system (Merck Millipore, Burlington, MA, USA

• ). FLG–TA synthesis Graphite (1 g) and tannic acid (0.1 g) were added to 1 L of distilled water in a vial. The mixture was sonicated using an ultrasonic probe (Branson Digital Sonifier 550, 110 W, 40 Hz) for 2 h in an ice-water bath under continuous stirring. The resulting suspension was then allowed to

• settle for 24 h. Physicochemical characterizations SEM images were obtained using a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM 5600, France) operating at 10 kV with a working distance of 10 mm. FLG sheets were individually dispersed in water, and a few drops of the resulting solution were

Aprepitant-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: a novel approach to enhance oral bioavailability

• Mazhar Hussain,
• Muhammad Farooq,
• Muhammad Asad Saeed,
• Muhammad Ijaz,
• Sherjeel Adnan,
• Zeeshan Masood,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Wafa Ishaq and
• Nabeela Ameer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 652–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.50

• blood–brain barrier [8]. Its mean volume of distribution is approximately 70 L. In the range of pH 2–10, APT has very low solubility (0.37 µg/mL) [9]. Because of the low water-solubility, the low permeability, and the rate-limiting step of poor gastrointestinal absorption, APT is categorized as a BCS

• as hot homogenization, cold homogenization, and solvent evaporation are used to prepare SLNs, but precipitation is the most compatible method for compound, polymer, and lipid. The precipitation method consists of dissolving the lipid with organic solvents and adding water to cause supersaturation of

• SLN formulations in distilled water exhibited a homogeneous white color. The encapsulation efficacy of the SLNs formulations was in the range of 25.33% ± 0.89% to 80.55% ± 0.15%. A higher content of β-CD in the formulation enhanced the encapsulated amount of APT. The hydrophobic structure of β-CD

Nanoscale capacitance spectroscopy based on multifrequency electrostatic force microscopy

• Pascal N. Rohrbeck,
• Lukas D. Cavar,
• Franjo Weber,
• Peter G. Reichel,
• Mara Niebling and
• Stefan A. L. Weber

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 637–651, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.49

• response can be studied at almost arbitrary frequencies. Using this method, Gramse et al. have demonstrated broadband spectroscopy of dielectric layers in air [72] and water [59]. Building on this idea, we propose a novel, multifrequency AFM-based method for nanoscale capacitance characterization at

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• after in vivo administration [8]. Among these systems, microemulsions (MEs) stand out for their ability to increase the solubility, absorption, and bioavailability of lipophilic compounds such as EOs. MEs are transparent, thermodynamically stable, low-viscosity systems containing oil and water

• [14]. Another important parameter is the hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB). Surfactants with low HLB values between 3 and 6 generally promote the formation of water/oil (W/O) emulsions, while high HLB values between 8 and 18 predominantly result in O/W emulsions [14]. The HLB values of Eumulgin® CO

• /v), containing distilled water as the aqueous phase and EOCF as the oil phase, as shown in Figure 1. Although the PTPD with propylene glycol and Olivem® 300 (1:1, v/v) also showed regions characterized as ME, these regions contained only a low amount of EOCF (1%). Therefore, for the in vivo study

Focused ion and electron beams for synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials

• Aleksandra Szkudlarek

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 613–616, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.47

• the substrate. Metallic structures can be fabricated directly or through post-purification methods, such as water-assisted treatment, which has been effective for Au and Pt deposits [10]. Interestingly, morphological changes in the underlying SiO2 layer were observed during the process, resembling

• effects noted in water-assisted graphene etching [11]. While controlling the purity of deposits appears more straightforward, achieving precise nanoscale shapes remains challenging, particularly when structures are fabricated in close proximity. Experimental results demonstrate that FEBID, followed by

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• , produced by silkworms, beetles, mites, and spiders [14]. Silk is an FDA-approved biomaterial for medical applications [15]. SF has distinctive physical, chemical, and mechanical properties [16]. Its characteristics, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, elasticity, solubility in water, and ease of

• that have good biocompatibility. PUs provide significant potential for modifying polymer structures to obtain various mechanical properties [145]. Water-based polyurethanes The development of water-based polyurethanes (WPUs) has revolutionized the field of PU synthesis [146]. It has offered a greener

• and environmentally friendly PU synthesis route by replacing the common process of solvent-based PU synthesis. The emission of volatile organic compounds in synthesis and application can be avoided by adopting water-based PUs [147]. This has brought a shift in urethane research. WPUs have emerged as a