Laser–material interactions in liquids for the synthesis of nanomaterials: current status and perspectives

• Carlos Doñate Buendia,
• Bilal Gökce and
• Leonid V. Zhigilei

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 571–575, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.38

• techniques capable of probing the initial stages of nanoparticle synthesis with high temporal and/or spatial resolution [32][33]. In particular, accessing the picosecond time window needed to capture the initial interaction of the ablation plume with the liquid environment, which defines the subsequent

Synthesis of Cu–Mo/TiO₂ and Co–Mo/TiO₂ photocatalysts for the efficient degradation of organic pollutants in water

• Ilse Acosta,
• Brenda Zermeño,
• Edgar Moctezuma,
• Luis F. Garay-Rodríguez and
• Isaías Juárez-Ramírez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 559–570, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.37

• incorporation of 0.5 wt % of molybdenum, the photocatalyst’s absorption slightly increases toward the visible spectrum. Likewise, the incorporation of both copper and cobalt increases the absorption in the visible spectrum, which may be a consequence of the interaction of Mo–TiO2 with the copper and cobalt

• the TiO2 spectrum, which can be assigned to band-to-band recombination [35], which may be caused by the interaction of electrons and holes present in the valence and conduction bands of TiO2 [36]. The photoluminescence spectra of co-doped materials show broad signals centered at 385 and 382 nm for

• photocatalysts are positively charged at pH < PZC, the electrostatic forces between the negatively charged organic molecules, such as the carboxylate groups of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug molecules, and the positive charge of the catalyst surface, favor the interaction between both chemical species

Electrochemical determination of ciprofloxacin using a MIL-101/reduced graphene oxide-modified electrode

• Nguyen Quang Man,
• Nguyen Ngoc Nghia,
• Nguyen Vinh Phu,
• Vo Thi Khanh Ly,
• Le Lam Son,
• Pham Khac Lieu,
• Le Thi Hong Phong,
• Nguyen Dinh Luyen and
• Dinh Quang Khieu

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 541–554, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.35

• declines at higher pH levels, showing that both CPR’s protonation state and its interaction with the electrode significantly influence the electrochemical response (Supporting Information File 1, Figure S3). As a result, pH 4 was selected as the optimal condition. Additionally, the oxidation peak potential

• in the interaction between the CPR molecules and the electrode surface at higher concentrations. At lower concentrations, CPR molecules are effectively adsorbed onto the active sites of the MIL-101/rGO-modified electrode, resulting in higher sensitivity. However, as the concentration increases, the

• -assisted method, displayed a favorable microstructure and strong interfacial interaction between MIL-101 and rGO, leading to an improved electrochemical response to ciprofloxacin oxidation. Electrochemical investigations showed that the modified electrode exhibited enhanced electrochemical performance and

Fractional shot noise of an SU(N) Kondo system

• Damian Krychowski and
• Stanisław Lipiński

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 515–540, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.34

• of a single excess charge on the dot increases. Strong dynamic correlations start to play a dominant role when Coulomb interaction exceeds electron kinetic energy. For dots weakly coupled to the leads, many-body resonances build up at low temperatures, opening new paths for coherent transport. Due to

• contribution to noise is consistent with Landauer–Büttiker theory. Out-of-equilibrium interaction between quasiparticles shows up, and noise is nonlinear and strongly enhanced. This is caused by two-particle and three-particle scattering events and the accompanying backscattering processes [85]. In the present

• fluctuations. Therefore, this method cannot be used for analysis of nonlinear noise and non-diagonal susceptibilities. One way to solve this problem is to perform tedious calculations of fluctuations of boson fields around the saddle point [89][90]. The role of interaction beyond mean-field approximation can

Probing internal continua and atomic ultrafast charge transfer within size-controlled nanoparticles by post-collision interaction in core-hole clock spectroscopy

• Johannes Lütgert,
• Erika Giangrisostomi,
• Nomi L. A. N. Sorgenfrei and
• Alexander Föhlisch

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 505–514, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.33

• -Liebknecht-Straße 24/25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany 10.3762/bjnano.17.33 Abstract This study investigates size-controlled, quantum-confined CdSe/ZnS core–shell quantum dots using core-hole clock spectroscopy in combination with post-collision interaction (PCI) line shape analysis, providing insights into

• -collision-interaction; quantum dots; resonant Auger spectroscopy; Introduction The interplay of electron localization, itinerance, and charge transfer is essential to functional nanoparticles and quantum dots (QDs) [1][2][3][4][5][6]. In terms of electronic structure properties, materials on the nanoscale

• nanoparticles via a line-shape analysis revealing post-collision interaction (PCI) effects within the conduction band continuum. We investigate CdSe/ZnS core–shell nanoparticles with a constant CdSe core size of 3.5 nm and varying shell thicknesses of ZnS that allow for atomic layer control with narrow size

Upcycling agroindustrial waste into graphene oxide supports for gold nanoparticles: toward sustainable nanomaterials

• Juan Marcos Castro-Tapia,
• Selene Acosta,
• Hiram Joazet Ojeda-Galván,
• Elsie Evelyn Araujo-Palomo,
• Edgar Giovanni Villabona-Leal and
• Mildred Quintana

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 489–504, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.32

• photochemical growth of AuNPs. This approach takes advantage of the strong affinity between gold precursors and oxygen-containing functional groups on the GO surface, which act as nucleation and anchoring sites for AuNPs, thereby modulating their size, spatial distribution, and interaction with the carbon

• organic pollutants, including nitroaromatic compounds and dye molecules, under mild reaction conditions [57][58][59]. The synergistic interaction between AuNPs and GO enhances electron transfer, enabling lower noble-metal loading while maintaining high catalytic performance. Furthermore, AuNPs@GO

• agroindustrial waste-derived samples (Agro-GOP, Agro-GOX, and Agro-GOC). UV–vis spectra of AuNPs and AuNPs supported on GO samples. The plasmon resonance peak appears at 522 nm for AuNPs and is redshifted (526–531 nm) in the hybrids, indicating interaction with the GO surface. TEM images of AuNP-decorated GO

Defects and defect-mediated engineering of two-dimensional materials: challenges and open questions

• Arkady V. Krasheninnikov,
• Matthias Batzill,
• Anouar-Akacha Delenda,
• Marija Drndić,
• Chris Ewels,
• Katharina J. Franke,
• Mahdi Ghorbani-Asl,
• Alexander Holleitner,
• Ado Jorio,
• Ute Kaiser,
• Daria Kieczka,
• Hannu-Pekka Komsa,
• Jani Kotakoski,
• Manuel Längle,
• David Lamprecht,
• Yun Liu,
• Steven G. Louie,
• Janina Maultzsch,
• Thomas Michely,
• Katherine Milton,
• Anna Niggas,
• Hanako Okuno,
• Joshua A. Robinson,
• Marika Schleberger,
• Bruno Schuler,
• Alexander Shluger,
• Kazu Suenaga,
• Kristian S. Thygesen,
• Richard A. Wilhelm,
• E. Harriet Åhlgren and
• Carla Bittencourt

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 454–488, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.31

• Abstract Compared to bulk solids, defects in low-dimensional materials and, specifically, 2D systems are expected to have a stronger effect, detrimental or beneficial, on their properties. Owing to their geometry, defects in 2D materials can easily be formed due to the interaction with the environment or

• -mediated engineering of nanomaterials for energy and quantum applications” organized by the Beilstein-Institut. Following the discussions at the symposium, here, we present the challenges and open questions in our understanding of the behavior of defective 2D materials, interaction of energetic particles

• to the interaction with the environment, for example, because of oxidation. The imperfections have a strong influence on the electronic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties of 2D materials [2][3]. They normally deteriorate the characteristics; but they can also be beneficial, for example, in

Nanocarrier-integrated multilayer films produced by 3D printing for improved skin adhesion and curcumin photostability

• Thayse Viana de Oliveira,
• Ana Paula Farias Leão,
• Júlia Leão,
• Cesar Liberato Petzhold and
• Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 440–453, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.30

• previously demonstrated for SSE-based systems [27]. The incorporation of alginate contributes to biocompatibility and creates a hydrogel microenvironment resembling the extracellular matrix, which may favour tissue interaction [33]. The upper layer, composed of a CMC hydrogel containing titanium dioxide

Nanoinformatics: spanning scales, systems and solutions

• Iseult Lynch,
• Diego S. T. Martinez,
• Kunal Roy and
• Georgia Melagraki

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 423–427, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.28

• milk consisting of the six most abundant milk proteins found in natural cow milk and lactose, the most abundant sugar found in dairy products, based on their corresponding interaction strengths. The resulting freely accessible multiscale computational model enables predictions of the binding strength

• , preferred orientations, and relative abundance of the specified molecules on the specified material surfaces giving an insight into the mechanisms of bio–nano interaction [4]. Varsou et al. demonstrated a novel approach to evaluate the performance of different models for the same endpoint (zeta potential of

• to treat neurodegenerative disease [10]. Moving into the realm of mixture toxicity and environmental impacts of nanomaterials, Petry et al. investigated the interaction of graphene oxide (GO) with tannic acid (TA) and its consequences for GO toxicity to the earthworm Caenorhabditis elegans. Reactive

Biomimetic nanoparticles in cancer photodynamic therapy: a review of targeted delivery systems and therapeutic outcomes

• Valentina I. Gorbacheva,
• Alexey S. Grabovoy,
• Polina S. Marukhina,
• Anastasiia O. Syrocheva and
• Ekaterina P. Kolesova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 396–422, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.27

• interaction with target cells [58]. Common techniques include (i) physical co-extrusion, where nanoparticles and membranes are forced through porous membranes to form uniform coatings; (ii) sonication, which uses ultrasonic energy to induce membrane fusion and often favors correct protein orientation; and

• to damaged vasculature (common in tumors) and circulating tumor cells (CTCs); they also express CD47 for extended circulation and modulate immune cell interactions and inflammation [154]. These properties allow for deep tumor penetration and direct interaction with immune components within the TME

Eco-efficient materials for agricultural crops based on a mineral rich in MOR- and HEU-type zeolites

• Esperanza Yamile de la Nuez-Pantoja,
• Inocente Rodríguez-Iznaga,
• Gerardo Rodríguez-Fuentes,
• Vitalii Petranovskii,
• Ariel Martínez García,
• José Juan Calvino Gámez and
• Daniel Goma Jiménez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 381–395, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.26

• affect the interaction of chemical species with the zeolitic matrix, altering the behaviour of the resulting materials. In this work, a mineral consisting mainly of a mixture of two zeolites, mordenite (MOR) and clinoptilolite-heulandite (HEU) with equivalent fractions, was used to develop materials

• key role in its interaction with various chemical species, which affects the behaviour of the resulting material. In general, due to the peculiarities of geochemical processes, only one main zeolitic phase is usually formed during the formation of zeolite deposits. This main phase coexists with other

• absorption bands near to 1400 cm−1 corresponding to the bending vibrations of N–H bonds in NH4+-modified natural zeolites. In general, when ammonium interacts with the oxygen atoms of the zeolitic structure, various configurations are formed, each of which exhibits different interaction strength depending on

Polycatecholamine nanocoatings on stainless steel: the effect on attachment of human fibroblasts and platelets

• Paulina Trzaskowska,
• Ewa Rybak,
• Maciej Trzaskowski,
• Kamil Kopeć,
• Jakub Krzemiński,
• Rafał Podgórski,
• Hatice Genc,
• Mehtap Civelek and
• Iwona Cicha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 365–380, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.25

• integrins and, at the same time, high Rku with sharp nanofeatures hindered cell migration. As a result, there was no sufficient cell–cell interaction, which may lead to the detachment of cells [34]. It was reported that surfaces characterized by low CA values do not support fibroblast adhesion. Kim et al

• groups (positively charged) are likely to promote platelet adhesion (negatively charged) by electrostatic interaction, as also observed in the case of SS-PDA 10 min variant. Moreover, low –NH2 content is linked to suppression of thrombogenicity since it enhanced maintaining the natural conformation of

Ferroelectric nanodot reservoir for neuromorphic computing

• Anna Razumnaya,
• Yuri Tikhonov,
• Dmitrii Naidenko,
• Léo Boron,
• Valerii Vinokur and
• Igor Lukyanchuk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 352–364, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.24

• interaction of local polarization with an effective dipolar field, where: The final term U0 is independent of the configuration {mi}. Because all Jij are positive, the system is highly frustrated, meaning it has many nearly degenerate states near the energy minimum, a property that enables high information

• interaction with the ferroelectric reservoir without physical wiring, expanding integration possibilities with optical platforms, scanning probe tools, and flexible electronics. In the implementations illustrated in Figure 7, the ferroelectric reservoir is operated using contactless methods for data input and

• coupled system. Interaction matrix and local fields arise naturally from electrostatic coupling, while the discrete polarization states map to binary Ising variables. This analogy provides a physically grounded platform for implementing neuromorphic functionality. The system operates through charge

Beam shaping techniques for pulsed laser ablation in liquids: Unlocking tunable control of nanoparticle synthesis in liquids

• Sergio Molina-Prados,
• Nadezhda M. Bulgakova,
• Alexander V. Bulgakov,
• Jesus Lancis,
• Gladys Mínguez Vega and
• Carlos Doñate-Buendia

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 309–342, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.22

• –material interaction and temporal modification to optimise pulse duration and energy delivery. The current advancements in beam shaping techniques, their impact on the nanoparticle characteristics, and their broader implications for scaling pulsed laser ablation in liquids to meet industrial demands are

• they enable. Similarly, temporal pulse shaping modifies the interaction time and heat generation and dissipation, allowing for better control of overheat accumulation and nonlinear effects during ablation. These approaches provide a path toward more consistent and tunable NP synthesis, further

• synthesis and the underlying optical mechanisms including its influence on ablation efficiency, size control, and colloidal stability. Refractive elements rely on the interaction of light with a transparent material with a different refractive index than air. Standard refractive optics elements such as

Calculation of the dynamic stiffness of a cantilever under torsional oscillation

• Keita Nishida,
• Yuuki Yasui and
• Yoshiaki Sugimoto

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 303–308, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.21

• the lateral interactions [7][12][13][14]. The torsional oscillation modes of AFM cantilevers are sensitive to in-plane interaction [15][16][17]. This method enabled highly accurate imaging of the in-plane crystalline orientation by utilizing friction information [14]. Quartz tuning fork AFM is useful

• of 4 pm [18]. Quantitative interpretation of the conservative interaction energy and the energy dissipation requires the stiffness of the oscillators [19][20][21]. The oscillator exhibits different stiffnesses in dynamic and static cases [22][23][24]. While the static stiffness is easily obtained

Fast vortex dynamics and relaxation times in NbRe-based heterostructures

• Francesco De Chiara,
• Zahra Makhdoumi Kakhaki,
• Francesco Avitabile,
• Francesco Colangelo,
• Abhishek Kumar,
• Carmine Attanasio and
• Carla Cirillo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 292–302, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.20

• ]. The enhancement of vortex dynamics and the reduction of τE are strongly linked to the optimization of quasiparticle relaxation mechanisms. Excited quasiparticles can relax primarily through two processes, namely thermal electron–phonon (e–ph) interaction and electron–electron (e–e) recombination [1

• , substrate-related thermal effects can be considered equivalent, and the observed differences can be attributed to the specific properties of the capping layers and their interaction with the superconducting film. In this respect, Au and Py are expected to affect the vortex dynamics in qualitatively

Advancing nanolithography: a comprehensive review of materials for local anodic oxidation with AFM

• Matteo Lorenzoni

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 275–291, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.19

• low throughput of traditional SPL. 3.2.5 Machine learning. Optimizing LAO process parameters (such as pulse amplitude, width, and tip–sample interaction) remains a complex challenge. Recent developments in numerical simulation and machine learning (ML) offer promising avenues to address these

Durable antimicrobial activity of fabrics functionalized with zeolite ion-exchanged nanomaterials against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli

• Perla Sánchez-López,
• Kendra Ramirez Acosta,
• Sergio Fuentes Moyado,
• Ruben Dario Cadena-Nava and
• Elena Smolentseva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 262–274, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.18

• nanoparticles act against viruses involves the interaction with the surface of the NPs, leading to adhesion and inactivation, thereby preventing the virion from entering the host cell. NPs release ions or transfer them to microorganisms, inducing oxidative stress. Given these possible mechanisms, viral

• treating the fibers at the end of the manufacturing process. Those methods require the use of previously prepared NPs, which are then bonded to the textile through chemical bonding or electrostatic interaction. The pad–dry–cure method is an effective alternative for applying nanoparticles to the surface of

Multilayered hyperbolic Au/TiO₂ nanostructures for enhancing the nonlinear response around the epsilon-near-zero point

• Fernando Arturo Araiza-Sixtos,
• Mauricio Gomez-Robles,
• Rafael Salas-Montiel and
• Raúl Rangel-Rojo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 251–261, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.17

• of light. As a consequence, light does not differentiate between the constituting materials and only “sees” them as a single material. To study the interaction of light with these metamaterials, we use the effective media approximation to calculate the optical properties of these materials. These

Gold nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide as a highly effective catalyst for the selective α,β-dehydrogenation of N-alkyl-4-piperidones

• Brenda Flore Kenyim,
• Mihir Tzalis,
• Marilyn Kaul,
• Robert Oestreich,
• Aysenur Limon,
• Chancellin Pecheu Nkepdep and
• Christoph Janiak

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 218–238, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.15

• facilitate charge transfer between the metal and the support, enhancing the activation of molecular oxygen and promoting the oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH) pathway. This synergistic interaction should not only improve the intrinsic catalytic activity but also allow the catalyst to achieve high efficiency

• -containing functional groups strongly influences catalytic activity [24][25]. AC contains a significant number of functional groups, such as carboxyl, hydroxy, and phenol groups, which enhance its interaction with metal nanoparticles and improve catalytic performance [26][27], rGO possesses a higher amount

• dehydrogenation (ODH) reactions. A minor component at slightly higher binding energies (88.2 and 84.7 eV) is attributed to Au+ species resulting from surface interaction with oxygenated groups of rGO. The predominance of Au0 demonstrates that the active sites mainly consist of metallic gold nanoparticles. The C

Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging of contaminant species in chemical vapour deposited graphene on copper

• Barry Brennan,
• Vlad-Petru Veigang-Radulescu,
• Philipp Braeuninger-Weimer,
• Stephan Hofmann and
• Andrew J. Pollard

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 200–213, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.13

• ambient exposure detected on the surface. This is of note as the graphene/Cu interaction strength is known to depend on the Cu crystal orientation as well as the epitaxial relationship [49][50][51], which leads to anisotropy in the Cu oxidation rate at the graphene/Cu interface for different Cu

Structure-dependent thermochromism of PAZO thin films: theory and experiment

• Georgi Mateev,
• Dean Dimov,
• Nataliya Berberova-Buhova,
• Nikoleta Kircheva,
• Todor Dudev,
• Ludmila Nikolova,
• Elena Stoykova,
• Keehoon Hong,
• Dimana Nazarova,
• Silvia Angelova and
• Lian Nedelchev

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 186–199, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.12

• interaction between the chromophores (Figure 7). Side chains from different main chains of the polymer can interact in a similar way to form supramolecular aggregates (Figure 8) [22]. The π-stacked aggregates are usually classified as H- and J-aggregates, and this classification (originally worked out by

From shield to spear: Charge-reversible nanocarriers in overcoming cancer therapy barriers

• Madhuri Yeduvaka,
• Pooja Mittal,
• Ameer Boyalakuntla,
• Usman Bee Shaik,
• Himanshu Sharma,
• Thakur Gurjeet Singh,
• Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula and
• Lakshmi Vineela Nalla

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 159–175, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.10

• , those with neutral or negative charge exhibit longer circulation times, reduced immune clearance, and improved therapeutic efficacy. Further, positively charged nanocarriers exhibit enhanced cellular uptake due to their electrostatic interaction with negatively charged cell membranes; however, they may

• enhances cellular uptake by facilitating better interaction with the negatively charged cell membrane, improving drug delivery efficiency [45]. For example, nanoparticles engineered with pH-responsive polymers facilitate the controlled release of therapeutic agents specifically within the acidic tumour

• bonds and functional groups that enable charge reversal, a strategy that significantly improves cellular interaction and drug delivery efficiency in tumour environments. Additionally, it should be noted that, unlike pH-responsive charge reversal, which is reversible due to protonation and deprotonation

Capabilities of the 3D-MLSI software tool in superconducting neuron design

• Irina E. Tarasova,
• Nikita S. Shuravin,
• Liubov N. Karelina,
• Fedor A. Razorenov,
• Evgeny N. Zhardetsky,
• Aleksandr S. Ionin,
• Mikhail M. Khapaev and
• Vitaly V. Bol’ginov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 122–138, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.8

• inductances has not yet been obtained, and the optimal parameter values are selected numerically [1][31][39][40][41][42]. A generalized theory of the Gauss neuron, accounting for the interaction of all five elements of the experimental device, is currently under development by our group. The necessity of

• accounting for interaction between neuron elements was revealed during the first experimental measurements of TFs presented in [26][27]. The samples were fabricated as multilayer structures above a thick superconducting screen. Experimental curves generally agreed with theoretical expectations, but included

• an additional linear component. One of the reasons is that the input (control line) and the readout (two-junction SQUID) elements can exchange magnetic flux via circulating currents in the superconducting ground plane [33]. It was shown in [43] that such interaction effectively results in asymmetry

Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer

• Raissa Rodrigues Camelo,
• Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet,
• Octavio Vital Baccallini,
• José de Brito Vieira Neto,
• Thais da Silva Moreira,
• Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal,
• Claudia Pessoa,
• Daniel Giuliano Cerri,
• Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley,
• Josimar O. Eloy,
• Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior and
• Raquel Petrilli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2026, 17, 97–121, doi:10.3762/bjnano.17.7

• involve particles up to four times larger than those in the present study [39]. Notably, co-loading of 5-FU and R-PE in HSPC liposomes improved EE% to 46% and 42% for HSPC 25 and HSPC 50, respectively. This suggests a possible interaction between the protein and the drug, enhancing 5-FU retention

• -IM-R-PE (as indicated by green-colored immunoliposomes). The lower phase angle indicates a more elastic, stiffer, and homogeneous lipid membrane, whereas the higher phase angle of HSPC-IM-R-PE is consistent with a more dissipative tip–sample interaction, which is characteristic of softer, flexible