Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• the degradation of the nanogel (which is triggered by pH), capecitabine is released in a site-specific manner in the tumor, showing a cytotoxic effect on tumor cells [16][37]. Ethosomes are phospholipid nanovesicles containing a fraction of ethanol used for dermal and transdermal release of molecules

Investigation of the solubility of protoporphyrin IX in aqueous and hydroalcoholic solvent systems

• Michelly de Sá Matsuoka,
• Giovanna Carla Cadini Ruiz,
• Marcos Luciano Bruschi and
• Jéssica Bassi da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1209–1215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.89

• evaluate the solubility of PpIX in distinct solvent systems to support the development of novel pharmaceutical formulations. The shake-flask method was employed, using purified water, 50% ethanol (EtOH50), 77% ethanol (EtOH77), absolute ethanol (EtOHabs), and polymeric systems containing 10% (w/w

• days. Hydroalcoholic and polymeric systems were employed. Hydroalcoholic systems were prepared by mixing water and absolute ethanol (EtOHabs). The polymeric systems were developed by adding 10% (w/w) of P407 to each solvent (water, ethanol 50% and 77% v/v), both previously weighed. The polymeric

• sealed, protected from light, and maintained under agitation at 37 ± 1 °C and 100 rpm. Aliquots of 50 to 500 µL were collected at time intervals up to 96 h, diluted in 77% ethanol (v/v), filtered through a 0.45 µm membrane, and quantified by spectrophotometry at λ = 400 nm. Quantification was performed

Crystalline and amorphous structure selectivity of ignoble high-entropy alloy nanoparticles during laser ablation in organic liquids is set by pulse duration

• Robert Stuckert,
• Felix Pohl,
• Oleg Prymak,
• Ulrich Schürmann,
• Christoph Rehbock,
• Lorenz Kienle and
• Stephan Barcikowski

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1141–1159, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.84

• in organic solvents (acetone, ethanol, acetonitrile). In a systematic experimental series using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, selected-area electron diffraction, X-ray diffraction, electron energy

• example in magnetron sputtering techniques. Colloidal HEA NPs by LSPC were first reported in 2019 by Waag et al. [35], where CrMnFeCoNi NPs were produced in ethanol, using a picosecond-pulsed laser for ablation (ps-LAL), yielding colloids of HEA NPs with a mean diameter below 10 nm and productivities of 3

• g/h. Both the bulk target and the NPs showed a crystalline fcc phase with a lattice parameter of 3.58 Å and a solid solution structure. Löffler et al. investigated the very same element system enriched with Mn, again made by ps-LAL in ethanol. They reported particle mean diameters below 10 nm and a

Fabrication of metal complex phthalocyanine and porphyrin nanoparticle aqueous colloids by pulsed laser fragmentation in liquid and their potential application to a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy

• Taisei Himeda,
• Risako Kunitomi,
• Ryosuke Nabeya,
• Tamotsu Zako and
• Tsuyoshi Asahi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1088–1096, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.80

• shows the absorption spectrum of an AlClPc ethanol solution. (c) Laser irradiation time dependence of absorbance at the wavelength of 620 nm. (d) Absorption spectra of the prepared nanoparticle colloids 10 min (black line), 3 days (red line), and 7 days (blue line) after laser irradiation. Absorption

Piezoelectricity of hexagonal boron nitrides improves bone tissue generation as tested on osteoblasts

• Sevin Adiguzel,
• Nilay Cicek,
• Zehra Cobandede,
• Feray B. Misirlioglu,
• Hulya Yilmaz and
• Mustafa Culha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1068–1081, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.78

• in diH2O for 2 min. Then, the cells were incubated with the Nuclear Fast Red Solution for 5 min and rinsed with running tap water and diH2O two times. After washing, the wells were rapidly dehydrated with absolute ethanol (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) by changing them three times. The images of each well

A calix[4]arene-based supramolecular nanoassembly targeting cancer cells and triggering the release of nitric oxide with green light

• Cristina Parisi,
• Loredana Ferreri,
• Tassia J. Martins,
• Francesca Laneri,
• Samantha Sollima,
• Antonina Azzolina,
• Antonella Cusimano,
• Nicola D’Antona,
• Grazia M. L. Consoli and
• Salvatore Sortino

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1003–1013, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.75

• ], fluorescence quantum yields were determined using optically matched solutions at the excitation wavelength of compounds 1 and its complex with 2, and fluorescein in acid ethanol (Φf = 0.78) [72] as a standard through the following equation: where Φf(s) is the fluorescence quantum yield of the standard, I and

Shape, membrane morphology, and morphodynamic response of metabolically active human mitochondria revealed by scanning ion conductance microscopy

• Eric Lieberwirth,
• Anja Schaeper,
• Regina Lange,
• Ingo Barke,
• Simone Baltrusch and
• Sylvia Speller

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 951–967, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.73

• subsequently removed, and the imaging dish was rinsed gently with 2 mL Krebs–Ringer medium before being refilled with 3 mL of fresh medium. For comparison, reference measurements were performed on similarly shaped polystyrene microspheres with diameters of 1 and 3 μm. 100 μL of the microsphere ethanol solution

• (1:10 for 3 μm microspheres, 1:100 for 1 μm microspheres) was transferred to the imaging dish and left to dry, allowing the ethanol to evaporate. As immobilisation was insufficient, the samples were exposed to acetone vapour for 30 min at room temperature in air. The 3 μm polystyrene microspheres

Structural and magnetic properties of microwave-synthesized reduced graphene oxide/VO₂/Fe₂O₃ nanocomposite

• Sumanta Sahoo,
• Ankur Sood and
• Sung Soo Han

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 921–932, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.70

• . nitric acid (HNO3), and ethanol were obtained from Duksan Pure Chemicals Co. Ltd. Graphite powder was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich. Instrumentation and characterization techniques The “PANalytical, X’Pert-PRO MPD” instrument (Cu Kα line; λ = 1.5406 Å) was utilized to carry out the XRD analyses of rGO and

Insights into the electronic and atomic structures of cerium oxide-based ultrathin films and nanostructures using high-brilliance light sources

• Paola Luches and
• Federico Boscherini

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 860–871, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.65

• methods [30][31][32]. Initial studies were performed by exposing the surface of interest to the chosen molecule at UHV-compatible pressures. The interaction between cerium oxide and, for example, CO [21][33], SO2 [34], methanol [32], ethanol [35], and water [36] have been considered. The higher energy

• resolution and the tunable surface sensitivity of synchrotron radiation-based XPS, as compared to conventional XPS, permits a more accurate description of the different contributions to the spectra. Figure 2 shows high-resolution synchrotron-radiation-based C 1s spectra, for different ethanol exposures at

• energies on the two surfaces are ascribed to the different Ce3+ concentrations in the two ceria films. The different intensity ratios between the methyl- and alkoxy-related peaks on the two surfaces are assigned to different adsorption and dissociation pathways for ethanol on a stoichiometric and a non

Facile one-step radio frequency magnetron sputtering of Ni/NiO on stainless steel for an efficient electrode for hydrogen evolution reaction

• Ha Huu Do,
• Khac Binh Nguyen,
• Phuong N. Nguyen and
• Hoai Phuong Pham

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 837–846, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.63

• with a thickness of 1 mm was used as a substrate for catalyst growth. Fabrication of the Ni/NiO/SS samples Grade 304 SS was cut into pieces of 60 mm × 25 mm, washed with soap, and then sonicated in a mixture of acetone and ethanol to remove the impurities left on the SS template. After that, thin films

Synthesis and magnetic transitions of rare-earth-free Fe–Mn–Ni–Si-based compositionally complex alloys at bulk and nanoscale

• Shabbir Tahir,
• Tatiana Smoliarova,
• Carlos Doñate-Buendía,
• Michael Farle,
• Natalia Shkodich and
• Bilal Gökce

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 823–836, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.62

• were synthesized by PLAL using the bulk Ge-based and Al-based CCA targets submerged in ethanol (Figure 1c). A near-infrared picosecond-pulsed Nd:YAG laser source (Coherent, HyperRapid NX, Kaiserslautern, Germany, 10 ps, 1064 nm) was employed to irradiate the targets within ethanol at a laser fluence of

• components that can be later in-situ alloyed during PLAL to generate compositionally controlled CCA NPs. CCA NP synthesis and characterization Particle size distribution The NPs synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in ethanol exhibit a log–normal particle size distribution ranging from 2 to 130 nm for both

• followed by SPS. (b) Bulk Al-based CCA synthesized through a process of mixing elemental powders using mortar and pestle, followed by uniaxial pressing and vacuum oven sintering. (c) CCA NPs produced by picosecond-pulsed laser ablation of the CCA alloy targets in ethanol employing a closed loop liquid flow

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• of SG (Figure 10a) and GO-SG-ZH/PLA (Figure 10b) coatings after 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 30 days in aqueous solutions containing water, 3% acetic acid, 10% ethanol, and 50% ethanol. Both coatings were quite stable in pure water as the weight losses were insignificant even after 30 days. However, acidic and

• alcoholic solutions gave more notable effects on coating stability. Especially, the weight losses of SG coating in 50% ethanol were 0.32 mg/cm2 after 3 days and 1.48 mg/cm2 after 30 days. The high coating weight loss indicated that the coating of silica nanoparticles was not stable in 50% ethanol solution

• (equivalent to a fatty food environment). Besides, the coating of GO-SG-ZH nanocomposite showed weight losses of 0.3 mg/cm2 after 3 days and 0.62 mg/cm2 after 30 days in 50% ethanol. Although the coating weight losses were considerable in the first 3 days, the trend curve became steady in the period from 3 to

Morphology and properties of pyrite nanoparticles obtained by pulsed laser ablation in liquid and thin films for photodetection

• Akshana Parameswaran Sreekala,
• Bindu Krishnan,
• Rene Fabian Cienfuegos Pelaes,
• David Avellaneda Avellaneda,
• Josué Amílcar Aguilar-Martínez and
• Sadasivan Shaji

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 785–805, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.60

• synthesize pyrite nanoparticles in various solvents, including isopropyl alcohol (IPA), dimethyl formamide (DMF), ethanol, methanol, and acetone, using a 532 nm wavelength output from a Nd:YAG laser. Pulsed laser ablation in liquid has been demonstrated as a reliable alternative to conventional chemical

• % pure, Beijing Goodwill Metals, China) was placed in a 250 mL beaker with 25 mL of solvent (IPA, DMF, ethanol, methanol, and acetone – all from Fermont, 99.9% pure, analytical grade). The FeS2 target surface was polished and washed each time using the respective solvent for ablation to get rid of any

• nanocolloids obtained in different solvents are shown in Supporting Information File 1, Figure S1. The NPs of FeS2 in IPA are referred to as FIPA, in DMF as FDMF, in ethanol as FET, in methanol as FMET, and in acetone as FAC. Morphology and composition of the nanoparticles obtained in all solvents are analyzed

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• , cholesterol, DSPC and DMG-PEG(2000) were dissolved in ethanol at a molar ratio of 50:38.5:10:1.5 and a final lipid concentration of 10 mM. For biotinylated LNPs, 1 M DSPC was substituted with 1 M DSPE-PEG(2000)-biotin. For C12 LNPs, C12-200, cholesterol, DOPC and DMG-PEG(2000) were dissolved in ethanol at a

The impact of tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane hole transport layer doping on interfacial charge extraction and recombination

• Konstantinos Bidinakis and
• Stefan A. L. Weber

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 678–689, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.52

• deposited a mesoporous TiO2 layer from a (transparent) titania paste solution (Aldrich, 16.67 wt % in ethanol) via spin coating and annealed it (same parameters as in the previous step). After each of these titania deposition steps, we subjected the films to a UV-ozone cleaning step (FHR UVO 150) for 30 min

Colloidal few layered graphene–tannic acid preserves the biocompatibility of periodontal ligament cells

• Teissir Ben Ammar,
• Naji Kharouf,
• Dominique Vautier,
• Housseinou Ba,
• Nivedita Sudheer,
• Philippe Lavalle and
• Vincent Ball

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.51

• ethanol, and 1 mL of this solution was mixed with 1 mL of TA solution at various concentrations (0.006–4.000 μg·mL−1). The absorbance was then measured at 517 nm against a blank sample (ethanol). Lower absorbance values in the reaction mixture indicate higher DPPH free radical scavenging activity. A

• then washed three times with cold 0.175 M sodium cacodylate buffer for 10 min each. The samples then underwent dehydration through a cold graded ethanol series (30%, 50%, 70%, and 95%) for 7 min each, followed by two 5-minute rinses in cold absolute ethanol and one 5-minute rinse in room-temperature

• absolute ethanol. Finally, samples were dehydrated with hexamethylenedisilazane for 15 min and air-dried in a fume hood for 24 h and coated with a gold–palladium alloy using a Hummer JR sputtering device (Technics, CA, USA), creating a 12.5 nm thick gold layer (50 s at 20 mA sputter current). SEM

Aprepitant-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: a novel approach to enhance oral bioavailability

• Mazhar Hussain,
• Muhammad Farooq,
• Muhammad Asad Saeed,
• Muhammad Ijaz,
• Sherjeel Adnan,
• Zeeshan Masood,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Wafa Ishaq and
• Nabeela Ameer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 652–663, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.50

• . Stearic acid was purchased from Lab Alley, Texas, USA. Acetonitrile, ethanol, and phosphoric acid were purchased from Merck, Germany. Double distilled water was obtained from the post-graduate research laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lahore. Solid lipid nanoparticle preparation and

• solubility studies APT and stearic acid were dissolved in different proportions (Table 6) in 10 mL ethanol (organic phase); the polymers (β-CD and poloxamer 407) were dissolved in 10 mL distilled water (aqueous phase). A suspension was obtained by adding the aqueous phase dropwise to the organic phase under

• content and encapsulation efficiency of APT in each formulation were determined via the total amount of drug added to the nanoparticles and the amount of free drug in the aqueous phase. Formulations equal to 2 mg of APT were dissolved in 10 mL of ethanol, filtered through a 0.45 µm membrane filter and the

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

Polyurethane/silk fibroin-based electrospun membranes for wound healing and skin substitute applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Muhammad Waqas,
• Ahsan Nazir and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 591–612, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.46

• crystalline), whereas random globules make up the amorphous region [80]. Silk I with α-helical structure can be turned into silk II with β-sheets through shearing, spinning, heating, or by using methanol or ethanol solvents; this transition is considered irreversible [81]. Triple helices of collagen and β

Feasibility analysis of carbon nanofiber synthesis and morphology control using a LPG premixed flame

• Iftikhar Rahman Bishal,
• Muhammad Hilmi Ibrahim,
• Norikhwan Hamzah,
• Mohd Zamri Mohd Yusop,
• Faizuan Bin Abdullah,
• I Putu Tedy Indrayana and
• Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 581–590, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.45

• room temperature, the product was purified with 1% HCl solution, distilled water, and ethanol, then vacuum-dried at 50 °C for about 4 h. The final product was nearly pure CNFs, as shown by FESEM images. TEM images indicated an average CNF diameter of 100 nm. Raman spectra showed a strong, narrow peak

• impregnated beads Zirconia beads of 0.30 mm diameter were selected as a substrate. The beads were cleaned by sonication in ethanol followed by rinsing with distilled water; the rinsed beads were dried in an oven to remove contaminants. The cleaned zirconia beads were impregnated with nickel catalyst to be

• stoichiometric equivalence ratio, increasing the overall temperature of the flame. The temperature distribution in the center of ethanol diffusion flame studied by Pan et al. showed results similar to those of the LPG flame in Figure 4b [26]. The wire mesh lowers the temperature below 731 °C at 10 mm HAB. Wei et

Functionalized gold nanoflowers on carbon screen-printed electrodes: an electrochemical platform for biosensing hemagglutinin protein of influenza A H1N1 virus

• Carlos Enrique Torres-Méndez,
• Sharmilee Nandi,
• Klara Martinovic,
• Patrizia Kühne,
• Yifan Liu,
• Sam Taylor,
• Maria Lysandrou,
• Maria Ines Berrojo Romeyro Mascarenhas,
• Viktoria Langwallner,
• Javier Enrique Sebastián Alonso,
• Ivana Jovanovic,
• Maike Lüftner,
• Georgia-Vasiliki Gkountana,
• David Bern,
• Abdul-Raouf Atif,
• Ehsan Manouchehri Doulabi,
• Gemma Mestres and
• Masood Kamali-Moghaddam

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 540–550, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.42

• process, forming stable AuNFs that remain at the surface of the electrode upon contact with water and ethanol as no change in the CV was observed after contact with these solvents (Supporting Information File 1, Figure S1). This suggests strong mechanical adhesion of the AuNFs to the CSPE surface. The

• Flour 568 were obtained from ThermoFisher (USA). Artificial saliva was obtained from LCTech GmbH (Germany). Syringeless filters of regenerated cellulose membrane (0.45 μm) were purchased from Cytiva (Sweden). Chloroauric acid (HAuCl4), hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, 4-aminothiophenol (4-ATP), ethanol

• modifications was employed. Briefly, the working electrode was covered with 10 μL of 10 mM 4-ATP solution in ethanol and incubated at 22 °C for 15 min. Unreacted 4-ATP was removed by two consecutive washings with 1 mL of ethanol and 1 mL of PBS, respectively. The 4-ATP/AuNFs/CSPE electrode was then dried under

Effect of additives on the synthesis efficiency of nanoparticles by laser-induced reduction

• Rikuto Kuroda,
• Takahiro Nakamura,
• Hideki Ina and
• Shuhei Shibata

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 464–472, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.35

• by laser irradiation is low. We also investigated the effect of other additives other than IPA as radical scavengers. Figure 4 shows the change in absorbance at a wavelength of 520 nm in UV–vis absorption spectra of an Au solution with IPA, ethanol, and glycerin during laser irradiation. In all cases

• , the reaction finishing time was shorter than that of the solution without additives. When ethanol was used, the reaction finishing time was almost the same in the case of IPA, but when glycerin was used, the nanoparticle synthesis efficiency was improved by 1.6 times. Therefore, compared to the case

• two methyl groups in IPA, so the stability of the radicals is higher than in ethanol, which has only one methyl group. However, there was no significant difference in the synthesis efficiency when using these additives. So, the stability of the radical has little effect on the synthesis efficiency of

Quantification of lead through rod-shaped silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles using an electrochemical approach

• Ravinder Lamba,
• Gaurav Bhanjana,
• Neeraj Dilbaghi,
• Vivek Gupta and
• Sandeep Kumar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 422–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.33

• 2854 cm−1 relate to the stretching vibration of carbon and hydrogen bonds. The peaks at 1030 and 1380 cm−1 are related to vibrational or in-plane bending of residual ethanol which was used for washing the nanoparticles and KBr pellet die set (used for pellet making for FTIR) [18][19]. Optical study of

• stirring for 2 h at room temperature. Once the stirring was complete, the deposited precipitate was formed. These precipitates were subjected to centrifugation and the pellet was collected; further washing was done multiple times using distilled water and ethanol. The obtained nanoparticles were oven-dried

• electron mediator for creating a lead electrochemical sensor with high sensitivity. In order to coat the Ag@ZnO NRs, a mixture of 1 mg of as-produced nanorods was mixed in 10 mL of ethanol and sonicated for 30 min. This 4 µL mixture was then applied to the cylindrical gold electrode of 2 mm diameter and

Graphene oxide–chloroquine conjugate induces DNA damage in A549 lung cancer cells through autophagy modulation

• Braham Dutt Arya,
• Sandeep Mittal,
• Prachi Joshi,
• Alok Kumar Pandey,
• Jaime E. Ramirez-Vick,
• Govind Gupta and
• Surinder P. Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 316–332, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.24

• min, and the pellet was resuspended in 300 μL of 1× PBS. Furthermore, the cells were fixed with 70% ice-cold ethanol and incubated overnight at −20 °C. Thereafter, cells were centrifuged at 1200 rpm for 4 min and the resulting pellet was resuspended in 200 μL of lysis buffer (1× PBS with 0.2% Triton X

Enhancing mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers: a comprehensive review

• Nur Areisman Mohd Salleh,
• Amalina Muhammad Afifi,
• Fathiah Mohamed Zuki and
• Hanna Sofia SalehHudin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 286–307, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.22

• insoluble in water, alkali, and most mineral acid systems. Additionally, chitosan is soluble in mixtures of water, methanol, ethanol, and acetone [52], making it feasible for the electrospinning process. Unbound amino groups make chitosan a positively charged polyelectrolyte in acidic media, resulting in