Nanomaterials for biomedical applications

• Iqra Zainab,
• Zohra Naseem,
• Syeda Rubab Batool,
• Filippo Pierini,
• Seda Kizilel and
• Muhammad Anwaar Nazeer

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1499–1503, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.105

• membranes [8]. They can carry both water-soluble and fat-soluble drugs, shielding them from breaking down and extending their circulation time. Certain liposome-based drugs have already been approved for therapeutic use, especially in cancer therapy, where they may protect nearby healthy cells from toxicity

• effectively treat brain cancer cells. These nanocarriers helped drugs stay longer in the body, get to the brain tumor by crossing protective barriers, and directly target cancer cells [13]. However, carbon nanotubes require further investigation before being implanted into the human body due to their toxicity

Laser processing in liquids: insights into nanocolloid generation and thin film integration for energy, photonic, and sensing applications

• Akshana Parameswaran Sreekala,
• Pooja Raveendran Nair,
• Jithin Kundalam Kadavath,
• Bindu Krishnan,
• David Avellaneda Avellaneda,
• M. R. Anantharaman and
• Sadasivan Shaji

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1428–1498, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.104

Parylene-coated platinum nanowire electrodes for biomolecular sensing applications

• Chao Liu,
• Peker Milas,
• Michael G. Spencer and
• Birol Ozturk

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1392–1400, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.101

• . developed a glucose sensor using copper nanowires and CNTs, achieving a limit of detection as low as 0.3 nM, highlighting the remarkable sensitivity of CNT-based electrodes [9]. Nevertheless, several studies reported the toxicity of CNTs for tissues and cells including loss of cellular integrity, DNA damage

Enhancing the therapeutical potential of metalloantibiotics using nano-based delivery systems

• Alejandro Llamedo,
• Marina Cano,
• Raquel G. Soengas and
• Francisco J. García-Alonso

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1350–1366, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.98

• application of metalloantibiotics is limited by their potential toxicity, instability, and lack of target specificity. Encapsulating metalloantibiotics in drug delivery systems, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, and polymeric carriers, could mitigate these challenges, enhancing their therapeutic index and

• reputation of metal-based drugs as toxic agents, related to studies that describe systemic toxicity of several metallodrugs, mainly related to liver damage and cardiotoxic effects [23]. In this sense, several recent studies show that encapsulation in nanotechnological systems is a general solution to

• the drug accumulation. Optimization of these parameters helps to maximize efficacy and mitigate toxicity of the payload [39]. Infection sites often present unique microenvironmental features, a factor that nanoparticles exploit to achieve precise therapeutic delivery. For example, polymeric

Ferroptosis induction by engineered liposomes for enhanced tumor therapy

• Alireza Ghasempour,
• Mohammad Amin Tokallou,
• Mohammad Reza Naderi Allaf,
• Mohsen Moradi,
• Hamideh Dehghan,
• Mahsa Sedighi,
• Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi and
• Fahimeh Lavi Arab

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1325–1349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.97

• to high disability and mortality, and the exact mechanisms are still unclear. Current chemotherapy faces challenges, including non-specificity, toxicity to healthy cells, the development of stem-like cells, and the progression of multidrug resistance [1]. Drug resistance is a major obstacle in cancer

• systems include precise targeting, controlled release over time, prolonged half-life, and reduced systemic toxicity [19]. Liposomes, as lipid-based nanoparticles, hold promise for improving cancer therapies as they can encapsulate various anticancer molecules [20]. A liposome typically consists of a

• , reduced drug toxicity, improved pharmacokinetics, the ability to release drugs in a controlled manner, and the ability to target tumors. However, certain limitations also exist, including off-target accumulation and fast clearance [21]. This review explores the design of liposome structures aimed at

Better together: biomimetic nanomedicines for high performance tumor therapy

• Imran Shair Mohammad,
• Gizem Kursunluoglu,
• Anup Kumar Patel,
• Hafiz Muhammad Ishaq,
• Cansu Umran Tunc,
• Dilek Kanarya,
• Mubashar Rehman,
• Omer Aydin and
• Yin Lifang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1246–1276, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.92

• inherent traits endow biomimetic nanoparticles with a suite of intelligent features, including biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, reduced toxicity, immune evasion, prolonged circulation, homotypic binding, enhanced tumor targeting, and the capability of precise delivery. By integrating biologically

• , there is an ultimate need to produce suitable carriers, which can reduce the side effects and toxicity, while achieving high therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) has been proven a great breakthrough in the field of cancer treatment. NPs, smaller than 100 nm, show unique

• emerged as an ideal strategy to protect synthetic nanoparticles during circulation. Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles act like source cells with significant biomedical properties including biocompatibility, low toxicity, and potent targetability. They are recognized as “own” by the immune

Hydrogels and nanogels: effectiveness in dermal applications

• Jéssica da Cruz Ludwig,
• Diana Fortkamp Grigoletto,
• Daniele Fernanda Renzi,
• Wolf-Rainer Abraham,
• Daniel de Paula and
• Najeh Maissar Khalil

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1216–1233, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.90

• [205][206] or more of the aforementioned stimuli [207]. Nanogels have been explored to deliver nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs into the skin. Avoiding systemic toxicity is the main reason to promote the topical and transdermal release of these drugs. Thermo-responsive nanogels consisting of

• ± 1.9%. In dermal toxicity studies, the nanogel-MTX formulation showed no signs of irritation or toxicity, while in the biodistribution study, the nanogel-MTX displayed sustained systemic release up to 48 hours with low accumulation in organs such as liver, kidney, and intestine. A therapeutic efficacy

• skin penetration enhancer. The cationic charge of the particles, combined with drug release in a slightly acidic environment, promoted an increase in drug permeation (ex vivo), as well as an augment in capecitabine toxicity against cancer cells in a HaCaT cell line MTT assay. This pH-sensitive behavior

Investigation of the solubility of protoporphyrin IX in aqueous and hydroalcoholic solvent systems

• Michelly de Sá Matsuoka,
• Giovanna Carla Cadini Ruiz,
• Marcos Luciano Bruschi and
• Jéssica Bassi da Silva

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1209–1215, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.89

• are unsuitable solvents for PpIX, whereas the nanostructured systems containing P407 showed the greatest potential for future pharmaceutical applications, mainly the aqueous one because of its low toxicity considering topical preparations. Keywords: 5-aminolevulinic acid; photodynamic therapy

• suitable light source, and molecular oxygen, generating reactive oxygen species that induce cellular damage [3][4]. Among the PSs used in PDT, protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) stands out as a natural precursor of hemoglobin and porphyrins, exhibiting low toxicity in its monomeric form [5]. When exposed to light

• differences among water-based, 50% v/v ethanol, and 77% v/v ethanol polymeric systems. Considering the potential toxicity and the challenges of hydroalcoholic formulations, the aqueous P407 system, with its gelling and thermoresponsive properties, stands out as the most promising approach for further

Chitosan nanocomposite containing rotenoids: an alternative bioinsecticidal approach for the management of Aedes aegypti

• Maria A. A. Bertonceli,
• Vitor D. C. Cristo,
• Ivo J. Vieira,
• Francisco J. A. Lemos,
• Arnoldo R. Façanha,
• Raimundo Braz-Filho,
• Gustavo V. T. Batista,
• Luis G. M. Basso,
• Sérgio H. Seabra,
• Thalya S. R. Nogueira,
• Felipe F. Moreira,
• Arícia L. E. M. Assis,
• Antônia E. A. Oliveira and
• Kátia V. S. Fernandes

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1197–1208, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.88

• selective toxicity to target organisms, making them a viable alternative for developing new insecticide formulations. Combining these attributes with nanoparticle encapsulation strategies, it is possible to considerably increase the biocidal agent efficacy while reducing the environmental and human health

• studies have reported similar improvements in larvicidal activity through nanocarrier systems based on botanical insecticides. For instance, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized using aqueous leaf extract of Ambrasia arborescens demonstrated markedly higher toxicity against Aedes aegypti larvae (LC50

• = 0.28 ppm) compared to the crude aqueous extract (LC50 = 1844.61 ppm) [27]. Similarly, silver nanoparticles synthesized with aqueous extracts of Solanum mammosum (SmAgNPs) exhibited significantly greater toxicity (LC50 = 0.06 ppm) than the crude aqueous extract (LC50 = 1631.27 ppm) [28]. According to an

Electronic and optical properties of chloropicrin adsorbed ZnS nanotubes: first principle analysis

• Prakash Yadav,
• Boddepalli SanthiBhushan and
• Anurag Srivastava

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1184–1196, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.87

• and a pulmonary toxicant, CP exhibits potent lachrymatory and ocular irritant properties. Its degradation products, including chlorine, phosgene, nitric oxides, and ammonia, contribute to its toxicity by causing severe pulmonary and ocular damage [5]. Exposure to CP, as depicted in Figure 1, can

Fabrication of metal complex phthalocyanine and porphyrin nanoparticle aqueous colloids by pulsed laser fragmentation in liquid and their potential application to a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy

• Taisei Himeda,
• Risako Kunitomi,
• Ryosuke Nabeya,
• Tamotsu Zako and
• Tsuyoshi Asahi

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1088–1096, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.80

• of PC12 and HeLa cells was observed upon light irradiation, while slight toxicity was observed for MPcs even in the dark (Figure 7). Both AlClPc and PtOEP demonstrated dose-dependent photocytotoxicity for PC12 cells. To investigate the photocytotoxicity properties of the nanoparticles, the

Piezoelectricity of hexagonal boron nitrides improves bone tissue generation as tested on osteoblasts

• Sevin Adiguzel,
• Nilay Cicek,
• Zehra Cobandede,
• Feray B. Misirlioglu,
• Hulya Yilmaz and
• Mustafa Culha

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1068–1081, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.78

• results demonstrate that both NMs exhibited robust piezoelectric properties and confirmed their exceptional biocompatibility, with no toxicity observed even at the highest concentrations tested. The mechanical stress induced by the US prompts micromechanical interaction with cells. This, in turn, triggers

A calix[4]arene-based supramolecular nanoassembly targeting cancer cells and triggering the release of nitric oxide with green light

• Cristina Parisi,
• Loredana Ferreri,
• Tassia J. Martins,
• Francesca Laneri,
• Samantha Sollima,
• Antonina Azzolina,
• Antonella Cusimano,
• Nicola D’Antona,
• Grazia M. L. Consoli and
• Salvatore Sortino

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 1003–1013, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.75

• light, not only for its intrinsic low toxicity but also for its deeper tissue penetration. Our recent work reported a supramolecular approach to trigger the NO release from a blue-light-activatable nitroso-derivative NOPD through red light [51][52]. This was achieved by a bimolecular photochemical

Synthesis of biowaste-derived carbon-dot-mediated silver nanoparticles and the evaluation of electrochemical properties for supercapacitor electrodes

• Navya Kumari Tenkayala,
• Chandan Kumar Maity,
• Md Moniruzzaman and
• Subramani Devaraju

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 933–943, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.71

• groups which give them remarkable chemical and photophysical features, such as photostability, minimal toxicity, and tunable luminescence [18][19]. A significant number of studies has been carried out for developing CDs from inexpensive natural resources in many ways, which are also environment friendly

Supramolecular hydration structure of graphene-based hydrogels: density functional theory, green chemistry and interface application

• Hon Nhien Le,
• Duy Khanh Nguyen,
• Minh Triet Dang,
• Huyen Trinh Nguyen,
• Thi Bang Tam Dao,
• Trung Do Nguyen,
• Chi Nhan Ha Thuc and
• Van Hieu Le

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 806–822, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.61

• Zn(OH)2 constituent). ZH nanoparticles and GO nanosheets in the GO-SG-ZH hydrogel are antibacterial and antibiofilm agents with low toxicity for food packaging and biomedical applications [56][57]. The main antibacterial mechanism of GO nanosheets is cell membrane damage caused by direct contact of

Serum heat inactivation diminishes ApoE-mediated uptake of D-Lin-MC3-DMA lipid nanoparticles

• Demian van Straten,
• Luuk van de Schepop,
• Rowan Frunt,
• Pieter Vader and
• Raymond M. Schiffelers

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 740–748, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.57

• nanoparticle, reviewed by [6][7][8], as well as the protein source of the corona [9][10][11]. Ultimately, the protein corona can change the uptake [12][13][14], biodistribution [15][16][17][18], immunological responses [19][20] and toxicity [6][21][22] of nanoparticles and its characterization should thus play

Colloidal few layered graphene–tannic acid preserves the biocompatibility of periodontal ligament cells

• Teissir Ben Ammar,
• Naji Kharouf,
• Dominique Vautier,
• Housseinou Ba,
• Nivedita Sudheer,
• Philippe Lavalle and
• Vincent Ball

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 664–677, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.51

• reaggregation of exfoliated graphene layers [11]. Various surfactants have been employed. For instance, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate and sodium cholate have been reported to be able to produce stable graphene colloidal dispersions [13]. However, these synthetic surfactants often raise concerns about toxicity

A formulation containing Cymbopogon flexuosus essential oil: improvement of biochemical parameters and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

• Ailton Santos Sena-Júnior,
• Cleverton Nascimento Santana Andrade,
• Pedro Henrique Macedo Moura,
• Jocsã Hémany Cândido dos Santos,
• Cauãn Torres Trancoso,
• Eloia Emanuelly Dias Silva,
• Deise Maria Rego Rodrigues Silva,
• Ênio Pereira Telles,
• Luiz André Santos Silva,
• Isabella Lima Dantas Teles,
• Sara Fernanda Mota de Almeida,
• Daniel Alves de Souza,
• Jileno Ferreira Santos,
• Felipe José Aidar Martins,
• Ana Mara de Oliveira e Silva,
• Sandra Lauton-Santos,
• Guilherme Rodolfo Souza de Araujo,
• Cristiane Bani Correa,
• Rogéria De Souza Nunes,
• Lysandro Pinto Borges and
• Ana Amélia Moreira Lira

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 617–636, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.48

• diagram Various surfactants in different combinations were tested to obtain the ME. In general, non-ionic surfactants are most commonly used because they have a low critical micelle concentration, low toxicity, and greater stability to changes in pH and charge when compared to other classes of surfactants

Nanomaterials in targeting amyloid-β oligomers: current advances and future directions for Alzheimer's disease diagnosis and therapy

• Shiwani Randhawa,
• Trilok Chand Saini,
• Manik Bathla,
• Rahul Bhardwaj,
• Rubina Dhiman and
• Amitabha Acharya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 561–580, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.44

• treatment of AβO-driven AD [14], and we will discuss these topics in the following. Mechanisms of neuronal cell toxicity induced by AβOs Research has shown that AβOs possess a remarkable ability to penetrate cell membranes, largely due to their capacity to form porins within the lipid bilayer. This ability

•  2, contribute significantly to the neurodegenerative pathways associated with AD, highlighting the multifaceted role of AβOs in neuronal dysfunction and cell death [19]. Conventional methods for addressing the presence and toxicity of AβOs AβOs are small aggregates formed from the misfolding and

• , Parikh et al. developed a curcumin-loaded self-nanomicellizing solid dispersion system (Cur-SNSDS) to significantly enhance the in vivo bioavailability of curcumin. This novel NP system demonstrated superior safety and efficacy in mitigating Aβ42 oligomer-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y695 APP human

Synthetic-polymer-assisted antisense oligonucleotide delivery: targeted approaches for precision disease treatment

• Ana Cubillo Alvarez,
• Dylan Maguire and
• Ruairí P. Brannigan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 435–463, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.34

• target messenger RNA (mRNA). This reduces immune-related adverse events and toxicity while keeping increased resistance to nuclease degradation. In second-generation ASOs, the structural modifications are not limited to the phosphate linkage; the molecules also possess alkyl substitutions at the 2

• -conjugate exhibited moderate toxicity, particularly in terms of decreased white blood cell and platelet counts, these negative effects remained within acceptable ranges, suggesting that VIP–PLL conjugation could effectively enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the ASO while maintaining manageable toxicity

• effective complexation with ASOs and enhanced cellular uptake. Additionally, while these high-generation DPLs exhibited moderate cytotoxicity, complexation with ASOs was shown to reduce toxicity, making them a promising vehicle for gene therapy applications. Confocal microscopy further confirmed the ability

Quantification of lead through rod-shaped silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles using an electrochemical approach

• Ravinder Lamba,
• Gaurav Bhanjana,
• Neeraj Dilbaghi,
• Vivek Gupta and
• Sandeep Kumar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 422–434, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.33

• employed as effective electron mediators [9]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have gained a lot of attention due to their unique features, such as wide bandgap (approximately 3.37 eV), excellent electron transportation, piezoelectric behavior, semiconductor nature, low toxicity, and enhanced electrochemical

• the calculated amount of lead using the aforementioned technique. As the detected amount of lead in real samples are slightly higher than the spiking amount of lead, this is probable due to lead toxicity of real samples or greater conductivity of real samples due to the presence of more ions, which

Engineered PEG–PCL nanoparticles enable sensitive and selective detection of sodium dodecyl sulfate: a qualitative and quantitative analysis

• Soni Prajapati and
• Ranjana Singh

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 385–396, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.29

• SDS concentration of 0.1% to 0.00625% for 30 min showed its toxicity in terms of loss of focus, lens transparency, significant increase in lens wet weight, and axial length. Confocal imaging confirmed concentration-dependent mitochondrial loss in the ocular lens [8]. Human exposure to SDS via air was

• inherent toxicity, and their post-synthesis functionalization is laborious for selective detection [25][26]. Furthermore, alternatives such as polymer nanoparticles emerged as potential candidates for detecting contaminants such as SDS. Fu et al. developed a method for detecting SDS using polyethyleneimine

Development of a mucoadhesive drug delivery system and its interaction with gastric cells

• Ahmet Baki Sahin,
• Serdar Karakurt and
• Deniz Sezlev Bilecen

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 371–384, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.28

• concluded that EudAlg nanoparticles do not significantly affect the viability of AGS cell (Figure 4A). Internalization of nanoparticles When nanoparticles are designed for biomedical applications, two important properties to be considered are toxicity and cellular uptake. The cellular uptake of

• through artificial mucus. The nanoparticles were internalized by mucus-secreting AGS cells within four hours, while exhibiting no toxicity towards the cells. The sufficient mucoadhesive properties, biosafety, and internalization into the cells indicate the potential use of the delivery system as oral drug

Enhancing mechanical properties of chitosan/PVA electrospun nanofibers: a comprehensive review

• Nur Areisman Mohd Salleh,
• Amalina Muhammad Afifi,
• Fathiah Mohamed Zuki and
• Hanna Sofia SalehHudin

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 286–307, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.22

Emerging strategies in the sustainable removal of antibiotics using semiconductor-based photocatalysts

• Yunus Ahmed,
• Keya Rani Dutta,
• Parul Akhtar,
• Md. Arif Hossen,
• Md. Jahangir Alam,
• Obaid A. Alharbi,
• Hamad AlMohamadi and
• Abdul Wahab Mohammad

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2025, 16, 264–285, doi:10.3762/bjnano.16.21

• antibiotics has raised public concern, especially because they are environmental contaminants originating from human and animal waste [5]. These antibiotics can persist without change or as active metabolites in the environment, posing significant toxicity risks to aquatic and human life [6][7][8]. The

• properties, exceptional photocatalytic performance, lack of toxicity, widespread availability, and cost efficiency [65]. It has a broad bandgap (3.2 eV). Therefore, it can be activated only by UV radiation, which is only a small part of the solar spectrum. This feature makes TiO2 not suitable for outdoor